/( 


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U.  S.  DEPARTMENT   OF    AGRICULTURE. 

OFFICE  OF  EXPERIMENT  STATIONS— BULLETIN  NO.  130. 


A.    (  :.    TKi;  l£.    Di 


EGVPTTVN    IRKIGATION 


A  STIDV  OF  lUKKIATION  MbiTHODS  AND 
ADMIXISTKATTOX  fX  EaVPT. 


(  LAKKNCK   i.   JOHNSTON. 

ASSfSTANT   CHIEF,   IFiRIOATTON     IN  V  ESTC- ^^C^Tj'jNS. 


.^ 


WASHINGTON: 

AFENT    PRIXTIN(M     OFFICE 

1  !»  (■>  ?.  . 


LIST  OF  PUBLICATIONS   OF  THE  OFFICE  OF  EXPERIMENT  STATIONS  ON 

IRRIGATION/' 

Bui.    36.  Notes  on  Irrigation  in  Connecticut  and  New  Jersey.     J'.y  C.  S.  Phelps  and 

E.  B.  Voorhees.     Pp.  04.     Price,  1^  cents. 
Bui.    58.  Water  Rights  on  the  Missouri  River  and  its  Tributaries.     By  Ehvood  Mead. 

Pp.  80.     Price,  10  cents. 
Bui.    60.  Abstract  of  Laws  for  Acquiring  Titles  to  Water  fryui  tiie  Missouri  River  and 
its  Tributaries,  with  the  Legal  Forms  in  Use.    Compiled  by  El  wood  I^Iead. 
Pp.  77.     Price,  10  cents. 
Bui.    70.  AVater-Right  Problems  of  Bea^  River.     By  Clarence  T.  Johnston  and  Joseph 

A.  Breckons.     Pp.  40.   .  Price,  15  cents.     ■ 
Bui.    73.  Irrigation  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  States.     By  J.  C.  Ulr?ch.    Pp.  64.    Price, 

10  cents. 
Bui.    81.  The  Use  of  Water  in  Irrigation  in  Wy<junng.     By  B.  C.  Bufftnn.     Pp.  56. 

IMce,  10  cents. 
Bui.    86.  The  Use  of  Water  in  Irrigation.      Report  of  investigations  made  in  J 899. 

under  the  supervision  of  El  wood  Mead,  expert  in  charge,  and  C.  T.  John 

ston,  assistant.     Pp.  253.     Price,  30  cents. 
Bui.    87.  Irrigation  in  New  Jersey.     By  Edward  B.  Voorhees.     P]).   40.     Price,   5 

cents. 
Bui.    90.  Irrigation  in  Hawaii.     P,y  Walter  3Iaxwell.     Pj).  48.     Price,  10  cents. 
Bui.    92.  The  Reservoir  System  of  the  Cache  la  Poudre  Valley.     By  E.  S,  Nettleton. 

Pp.  48.     Price,  15  cents. 
Bui.    96.  Irrigation  Laws  of  the  Northwest  Territories  of  Canada  and  Wyoming,  with 

Discussion  by  J.  S.  Dennis,  Fred   Bond,  and  J.  M.  Wilson.     Pp.  90. 

Price,  10  cents. 
Bui.  100.  Report  of  Irrigation  Investigations  in  CaUfornia,  under  the  direction  of 

ElMood  Mead,  assisted  by  AVilliam  E.  Smythe,  Marsden  Manson,  J.  M. 

Wilson,  Charles  D.  Marx,  Frank  Soule,  C.  E.  Grunsky,  Edward  M.  Boggs, 

and  James  D.  Schuyler.     Pp.  411.     Price,  $1.25. 
Bui.  104.  The  Use  of  AVat^r  in  Irrigation.     Report  of  investigations  made  in  1900, 

lender  the  supervision  of  Elwood  Mead,*expert  in  charge,  and  C.  T.  John- 
ston, assistant.     Pp.  334.     Price,  50  cents. 
Bui.  105.  Irrigation  in  the  United  States.     Testimony  of  Elwood  Mead,  irrigation 

expert  in  charge,  before  the  United  States  Industrial  Commission,  June 

11  aryl  12/1901.     Pp.47.     Price,  15  cents. 
Bui.  108.  Irrigation  Practice  among  Fruit  Growers  on  the  Patntic  Coast.     By  E.  J. 

Wickson.     Pp.  54.     Prjce,  15  cents. 
Bui.  113.  Irrigation  of  Rice  in  the  United  States.     By  Frank  Pxmd  and  (ieorge  H. 

Keeney.     Pp.  77.     Price,  30  cents. 
Bui.  118.  Irrigation  from  Big  Thompson  River.      I5>' John  E.  Field.     Pp.  Ta.     Price, 

10  cents. 

''For  those  publications  to  which  a  price  is  affixed  application  should  be  made  to 
the  Superintendent  of  Documents,  Union  Building,  AVashington,  D.  C,  the  officer 
designated  by  law  to  sell  Government  publications. 

[Continued  on  third  page  of  cover]. 


y 


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U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr,,  Bui.  130.  Office  of  Expt.  Stations.      Irrigation  Invesfgaiions. 


Frontispiece. 


U.  S.  DEPARTMENT   OF    AGRICULTURE. 

OFFICE  OF  EXPERIMENT  STATIONS— BULLETIN  NO.  130. 

A.   C.  TRUE,    Director. 


EGYPTIAN  IRKIGATION 


A  STUDY  OF  IRRIGATION  METHODS  AND 
ADMINISTRATION  IN  EGYPT. 


CLARENCE  T.   JOHNSTON, 

ASSISTANT   CHIEF,   IRRIGATION     INVESTIGATIONS. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT    PRINTING    OFFICE. 
19  0  3. 


OFFICE  OF  EXPERIMENT  STATIONS. 

A.  C.  Tki-e,  Ph.  I).,  Director. 

E.  W.  Allen,  Ph.  ]).,  Assistant  Director.  . 

IRRIGATIOX    INVESTIGATIONS. 

Elwood  Mead,  CJiief. 

C.  T.  Johnston,  Assistant  Chief  iii  Charge  Central  District. 

Samuel  Fortier,  Agent  and  Expert  in  Charge  Pacific  District. 

C.  G.  Elliott,  Agent  and  Expert  in  Charge  of  Drainage  Investigations. 

R.  P.  Teele,  Editorial  Assistant. 

C.  E.  Tait,  Assistant  in  Charge  of  Maps  and  Ilhif^trations. 

9 


LETTER  OF  TRAXSMITTAL. 


U.  S.  Depart:ment  of  Agriculture, 

Office  of  Experiment  Stations, 

Washington,  D.  6'.,  May  W,  1903. 
Sir:  1  have  the  honor  to  transmit  herewith  and  to  recommend  for 
publication  a  report  on  Egyptian  irrio-ation,  prepared  under  the  direc- 
tion of  Elwood  Mead,  chief  of  irrigation  investigations  of  this  Office, 
b}^  C.  T.  Johnston,  assistant  chief. 

This  report  gives  the  results  of  observations  made  by' Mr.  Johnston 
during  the  winter  of  1901-2  on  the  irrigation  works,  practices,  and 
administrative  system  of  Egypt,  under  authoritv  of  the  act  of  Con- 
gress making  appropriations  for  the  irrigation  investigations  of  this 
Office,  which  provides,  among  other  things,  for  investigation  and 
report  upon  '^  the  laws  ^  -  *  and  institutions  relating  to  irriga- 
tion and  upon  the  use  of  irrigation  water  at  home  or  abroad." 

The  bulletin  is  illustrated  by  twenty-five  full  page  plate  illustrations 
and  nine  text  figures,  all  of  which  are  necessaiy  to  a  complete  elucida- 
tion of  the  text. 

Respectfully, 

A.  C.  True, 

Directcrr. 
Hon.  James  Wilson, 

Secretary  of  Agriculture. 

3 


/ 


LETTER  ()E  SUBMITTAL. 


IT.  8.  Department  of  Agricueture, 

Office  of  Experiment  Stations, 

Wdshhigton,  D.  r..  May  20.  1903. 

Sir:  I  have  the  honor  to  submit  herewith  a  report  on  Egyptian 
irrigation,  prepared  by  Clarence  T.  Johnston,  assistant  chief  of  irri- 
gation investigations  of  this  Office.  Mr.  Johnston  spent  the  winter  of 
1901-2  in  Egypt,  making  a  study  of  irrigation  methods  and  laws. 
This  report  gives  the  results  of  his  observations  and  in([uiries. 

In  the  valley  of  the  Nile  irrigation  has  been  practiced -for  thousands 
of  years,  and  if  time  and  experience  were  in  themselves  sufficient  we 
ought  to  find  water  distributed  with  more  skill  and  used  with  better 
results  there  than  in  any  other  country.  Such,  however,  is  not  the 
case.  On  the  contrary,  the  irrigators  of  this  country  have  little  to 
learn  from  Egypt  so  far  as  practical  methods  are  concerned.  The 
reasons  for  this  are  not  obscure.  One  is  the  lack  of  inventive  and 
mechanical  skill  on  the  part  of  the  fellah.  Here  eveiy  implement  used 
in  agriculture  has  been  subject  to  constant  change  and  improvement; 
the  Egyptian  still  uses  a  crooked  stick  for  a  plow  and  beats  out  his 
corn  as  did  his  ancestors  in  the  time  of  the  Pharaohs.  In  this  country 
we  have  already  evolved  special  machinery  for  the  construction  of 
canals,  building  of  laterals,  and  cleaning  out  and  enlarging  of  ditches; 
in  Eg3'pt  man}'  canals  are  still  cleaned  1)v  throwing  the  mud  out  by 
hand.  The  lessons  of  Egypt,  therefore,  so  far  as  irrigation  practice 
is  concerned,  are  of  negative  vahie.  There  is  another  reason  why  this 
is  so.  Irrigators  in  Egypt  are  paid  15  cents  a  day.  Their  methods 
are  possible  onh'  with  this  low  wage  rate,  hence  the}^  can  not  be 
adopted  in  a  country  like  ours,  where  higher  wages  are  paid. 

The  showing  of  the  vield  and  profits  of  irrigated  land  in  Egypt  is, 
however,  full  of  significance  and  promise  to  the  arid  commonwealths. 
It  is  onh'  on  irrigated  land  that  the  average  net  return  from  sugar 
cane  reaches  ^80  to  S85  an  acre.  The  revenues  of  the  Egyptian  Gov- 
ernment from  the  areas  devoted  to  dates  runs  from  Slo  to  845  an  acre, 
and  the  net  profit  to  the  cultivator  approximates  8150  an  acre.  This 
little  tract  of  agricultural  land,  no  laroer  than  the  ii-rioable  area  of 


6 

California,  supports  between  5,000,000  and  6,000,000  people,  pays  the 
expenses  of  a  costh'  g-overnment,  and  meets  the  interest  on  a  national 
debt  half  as  large  as  our  own  from  the  returns  on  agriculture  alone. 

Three  subjects  have  a  vital  relation  to  the  future  extension  of  irri- 
gation in  this  country.  These  are  storage,  drainage,  and  the  utiliza- 
tion of  water  b}-  pumping.  The  great  storage  works  of  Eg3^pt  have 
especial  interest  to  our  Government  engineers;  but  Egypt  has  few 
examples  of  the  small  storage  works  such  as  are  being  bu'ilt  in  large 
numbers  by  private  parties  in  the  West  and  which  are  destined  to  be 
an  important  feature  of  our  irrigation  s^^stems.  The  accumulation  of 
alkali  in  the  surface  soil,  which  has  already  become  a  troublesome 
feature  in  Western  irrigation,  at  one  time  rendered  unproductive 
large  areas  in  lower  Egypt.  These  are  being  reclaimed  by  drains 
which  carry  oii  the  excess  of  salts  and  tend  to  prevent  their  further 
accumulation.  So  far  as  lifting  water  from  wells  or  streams  is  con- 
cerned, the  devices  in  Egypt  are  inferior  to  the  gasoline  and  electric 
engines  and  centrifugal  pumps  now  extensively  used  in  the  West. 
Some  of  the  simpler  and  cheaper  devices  of  Egypt  are  efficient  for  the 
lifting  of  small  quantities  of  Avater,  and  there  are  many  places  in  this 
country  where  such  machines  can  be  used  to  advantage. 

Mr.  Johnston's  description  of  the  dams  ])uilt  by  the  French  and 
English  Governments  will  have  much  interest.  Their  success  from 
an  engineering  standpoint  and  the  great  benefits  which  have  come  to 
the  people  from  this  expenditure  of  governm?nt  funds  are  unques- 
tioned. But  it  is  doubtful  if  we  can  adopt  the  administrative  methods 
emploj'ed  in  Egypt.  Political  and  economic  conditions  in  that  countr}^ 
differ  so  widel}^  from  our  own  that  methods  which  are  there  useful 
are  clearly  inapplicable  here.  Egypt  is  governed  by  a  foreign  power, 
which  has  assumed  arbitrary  control  over  the  water  supply,  recogniz- 
ing no  rights  as  belonging  to  the  users  of  this  water.  Such  a  s^^stem 
has  brought  about  an  efficient  use  of  the  Nile,  but  it  is  repugnant  to 
American  ideas.  It  is  a  success  in  Egypt  because  of  lack  of  means  on 
the  part  of  the  agricultural  population  and  lack  of  the  experience  in 
business  and  political  affairs,  needed  for  the  successful  operation  of 
irrigation  s^'stems  under  private  ownership.  The  American  farmer 
has  both  the  economic  abilitv  necessary  to  the  management  of  irriga- 
tion works  and  the  political  power  and  the  intelligence  to  create  insti- 
tutions for  controlling  the  water  supply  which  will  be  in  harmony 
with  our  ideas  of  free  government.  The  study  of  Egyptian  laws  and 
administrative  methods,  while  interesting,  is  of  little  value  as  an 
example  to  be  followed. 

Respectfully  submitted. 

Elwood  Mead, 

Chief  of  Irrigation  Investigations. 

A.  C.  True,  Director. 


CONTEXTS. 


Page. 

Introduction 11 

A  general  view  of  Egypt 12 

TheXile '. 20 

Nile  gages 26 

Agricultural  seasons 27 

Farms  and  villages 29 

Cost  of  raising  crops  and  value  of  farm  products 31 

Development  of  Egyptian  irrigation 32 

The  canals  of  the  Nile  Valley 34 

Construction  and  maintenance  of  canals  and  levees 39 

"Water-raising  devices 40 

The  shaduf 40 

The  sakiyeh 41 

The  Archimedean  screw 43 

The  natali 44 

Pumping 44 

Duty  of  water 45 

The  Cairo  barrage 47 

Reservoirs 49 

The  Assuan  reservoir 52 

The  Assiut  dam 58 

Drainage 59 

Laws  and  regulations .   61 

Conditions  to  be  considered 61 

Authority  of  officials 61 

Causes  of  litigation - 65 

Irrigation  and  drainage  laws 67 

Jnstallation  of  water-raising  devices 72 

Drainage 74 

The  corvee 74 

Reform  of  the  corvee  system 78 

Conclusions _ 81 

Appendix  1 83 

Powers  of  the  governors  and  inspectors  of  irrigation 83 

Canals  and  levees 85 

Order  of  the  Minister  of  the  Interior  of  July  16, 1898 94 

Appendix  II 96 

Installation  of  machines  for  elevating  water 96 

Appendix  III 99 

Drainage  of  swamps  and  marshes 99 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PLATES. 

Page. 

Manulia  Canal Frontispiece. 

Plate  I.  Map  of  Egypt,  showing  provinces  and  irrigation  circles 12 

II.  Fig.  1. — Plowing  with  ox  and  buffalo.     Fig.  2. — Plowing  land  which 

has  been  baked  by  the  sun lt> 

III.  Cleaning  a  large  canal 16 

IV.  Fig.   1. — Irrigation  basin  near  Pyramids  of  Gizeh.     Fig.  2. — Irriga- 

tion basin  west  of  Cairo,  water  returning  to  Nile  in  channel 28 

V.  Fig.  1. — Irrigating  strawberries.    Fig.  2. — Perennial  irrigation,  wheat 

field  under  check  system  of  irrigation 28 

VI.  Fig.  1. — Thrashing  Indian  corn.     Fig.  2. — Thrashing  wheat 28 

VII.  Plat  of  the  village  of  Talbia,  showing  town  and  tributary  farms 28 

VIII.  Map  showing  irrigation  works  in  a  portion  of  the  province  of  Keneh  32 
IX.  Fig.  1. — Camels  carrying  ruins  of  village  to  be  used  for  fertilizer. 

Fig.  2. — Cleaning  a  small  canal 32 

X.  Map  of  the  Nile  Valley  from  Cairo  to  the  Delta  showing  the  location 

of  the  barrages  and  the  head  works  of  the  principal  canals 36 

XI.  Fig.  1. — Lateral  head  gate.     Fig.  2.— Head  gate  of  Manufia  Canal.. .  40 

XII.  The  shaduf 40 

XIII.  Fig.  1. — Sakiyehs.     Fig.  2. — A  steam  pump  on  a  scow 44 

XIV.  Archimedean  screw,  showing  interior  construction  at  right 44 

X  V.  The  natali 44 

XVI.  Fig.  I. — The  Damietta  barrage  from  eastern  bank  of  the  Xile.     Fig. 

2. — Rosetta  barrage  from  western  bank  of  the  Xile 48 

XVII.  Details  of  the  Cairo  barrage 48 

XVIII.  Map  comparing  the  Xile  Valley  with  that  of  the  Platte  River 52 

XIX.  Map  showing  the  Assuan  dam  across  the  Xile 52 

XX.  The  Assuan  dam 52 

XXI.  Western  end  of  Assuan  dam  from  downstream,  January  7,  1902 52 

XXII.   Fig.   1. — Cast-iron  lining  for  sluiceways  being  put  in  place  at  the 
Assuan  dam.     Fig.  2. — Deep  foundation  work  near  western  end  of 

Assuan  dam 56 

XXIII.  Diversion  dam  across  the  Xile  at  Assiut 60 

XXIV.  [Map  of  lower  Egypt,  showing  principal  canals  and  drains 60 

TEXT  FHtURES. 

Fk;.   1.   Diagram  showing  discharge  of  the  Mississippi  at  St.  Louis  and  of  the 

Xile  at  Assuan 22 

2.  Diagram  showing  discharge  of  the  Xile  at  Assuan  and  of  the  ^lissouri 

at  Kansas  City 23 

3.  Sjuir  to  prevent  erosion  of  river  banks 25 

4.  Xilometer  on  the  Elephantine  Island 26 

5.  Diagram  showing  inaccuracy  of  land  measurements 30 

6.  Typical  cross  section  of  the  Xile  Valley 33 

7.  Hoe  used  by  native  farmers 39 

8.  Cross  section  of  Assuan  dam 53 

9.  Details  of  apparatus  for  raismg  gates,  Assuan  dam 54 

9 


EGYPTIAN   IRRIGATION 


INTRODUCTION. 

The  studies  on  which  this  report  is  based  were  made  diirino-  the 
winter  ot  1901-2  as  a  part  of  the  work  of  the  irrigation  investigations 
of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.  The  object  was  not  the  com- 
piling of  an  exhaustive  treatise  on  Egyptian  irrigation,  but  rather 
the  study  of  agricultural  practices,  engineering  works,  and  adminis- 
tratiA'e  measures  for  comparison  with  American  works  and  methods, 
with  a  view  to  the  improvement  of  the  latter,  giving  especial  attention 
to  administrative  methods. 

The  plan  followed  was  to  become  conversant  with  the  irrigation  law 
of  Egypt,  then  follow  its  application  in  the  field.  Such  a  study  of 
irrigation  administration  can  best  be  carried  on  with  Cairo  as  a  base. 
All  the  engineers  having  charge  of  the  division  of  water  have  their 
oflices  there,  and  it  is  easy  to  reach  anj^  other  part  of  the  country  from 
that  cit}'.  Fortunately  the  laws  had  been  compiled  in  French  during 
the  year  1901,  and  copies  could  be  had  for  the  asking. 

The  inspector  of  irrigation  was  absent  from  Cairo  during  the  winter 
of  1901-2.  and  his  duties  were  attended  to  by  the  inspectors  of  Lower 
and  Upper  Egypt.  Under  any  circumstances  these  two  oflicers  and 
the  chief  of  the  technical  department,  who  has  charge  of  the  installa- 
tion of  water-raising  devices  and  the  inspection  of  steam  boilers  used 
in  connection  with  pumps,  shoulder  a  large  part  of  the  responsibilitj". 
These  officers  gladly  gave  such  information  as  they  had  in  their  pos- 
session, and  referred  such  inquiries  as  they  could  not  answer  directlv 
to  those  who  were  informed  on  the  subject. 

The  great  Nile  dams  would  naturally  be  examined  b}^  one  interested 
in  irrigation,  and  the  canals  can  be  studied  with  pi'ofit.  One  feature 
of  Egyptian  irrigation  which  is  almost  lacking  in  America  is  the  use 
of  water-raising  devices.  The  Egyptian  farmer  seldom  is  able  to 
secure  enough  fall  to  permit  the  deliverv  of  water  by  gravity  alone. 
The  problem  of  raising  water  from  some  of  the  streams  of  the  United 
States  will  have  to  be  solved  in  the  near  future.  Wherever  a  river 
flows  m  a  canyon  or  where  the  grade  of  a  stream  is  small  it  is  often 
advantageous  to  lift  the  water  to  the  head  of  a  canal  instead  of  build- 
ing a  long  or  difficult  line.  It  also  makes  the  maintenance  of  large 
diversion  works  unnecessary.     In  view  of  these  facts  information  was 

11 


12 

collected  relating  to  the  construction  and  cost  of  the  devices  employed, 
their  efficiency,  and  cost  of  operation. 

In  Egypt  as  in  America  the  use  of  water  on  the  higher  lands  has 
ruined  large  areas  of  lower  lands  b}'  raising  the  ground  water,  and  with 
it  the  alkaline  salts  from  the  subsoil.  Work  for  reclaiming  these  alkali 
lands  has  gone  much  farther  in  Egypt  than  in  America,  and  Egyptian 
methods  were,  therefore,  studied  with  much  interest. 

A  GENERAL  VIEW  OF  EGYPT. 

Northern  Africa  would  be  an  uninterrupted  desert  from  the  Atlantic 
to  the  Red  Sea,  except  for  a  narrow  strip  bordering  the  Mediterranean, 
if  it  were  not  for  the  Nile.  As  it  is,  there  is  only  a  thread  of  arable 
land  in  the  valley  of  the  river,  the  surrounding  desert  being  absolutel}^ 
barren. 

Egypt  proper  extends  from  Assuan  to  the  Mediterranean.  (See 
map,  PI.  1.)  South  of  Assuan  is  Nubia,  which  extends  as  far  south 
as  Khartum.  The  valle}^  of  the  Nile  is  very  narrow.  But  little  culti- 
vated country  is  found  from  Assuan  to  Luxor;  the  width  of  the  valley 
between  Assuan  and  Cairo  varies  from  practically  nothing  to  9  miles, 
and  there  are  a  number  of  places  where  the  desert  touches  the  Nile  on 
either  bank,  as  at  the  point  where  the  Gebel  Silsileh  hills  cross  the  Nile. 
Between  Edfu  and  Assuan  there  are  many  places  where  the  drifting 
sands  from  the  desert  are  encroaching  upon  the  agricultural  land. 
From  Assuan  to  Edfu,  a  distance  of  about  90  miles,  the  agricultural  land 
is  about  equally  distributed  on  either  bank.  From  Edfu  to  Erment,  a 
distance  of  about  80  miles,  the  agricultural  land  is  nearly  all  on  the 
western  shore,  having  an  average  width  of  3  miles.  From  Erment  to 
Assiut,  over  200  miles,  a  large  part  of  the  agricultural  land  is  on  the 
left  bank.  From  Assiut  to  Cairo  the  agricultural  land  is  practicalh^ 
all  on  the  left  bank.  At  a  point  about  60  miles  above  Cairo  the  valley 
reaches  its  maximum  width  of  about  9  mile^,  near  where  the  Yusef 
Canal  crosses  the  Lybian  Desert  into  the  Fayum.  The  delta  proper 
begins  some  1'2  miles  below  Cairo,  and  is  triangular  in  shape,  being 
nearly  120  miles  on  each  side.  The  greater  part  of  the  irrigable  land 
of  Egypt  lies  in  the  delta,  Init  only  about  half  of  the  land  that  is 
actually  farmed  at  the  present  time  is  found  there.  The  remaining 
lands  are  being  brought  under  cultivation  by  drainage  and  other 
reclamation  works.  The  total  agricultural  area  of  Egypt  is  5,000,000 
acres  or  a])out  four  times  the  area  of  the  State  of  Rhode  Island. 

The  writer  arrived  in  Alexandria  in  the  early  part  of  December, 
1901.  An  Egyptian  winter  compares  favorablv  with  a  Colorado 
summer.  Everything  is  in  summer  garb,  the  vegetation  being  more 
attractive  than  it  appears  during  the  preceding  hot  months.  Even 
the  natives  prefer  the  winter  season,  although  they  feel  the  chill  of 
the  night  air  and  sutler  from  an  occasional  shower. 


U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Bu'.  130.  Office  of  Expt.  Stations.     Irrigation  Investigations. 


Plate  I. 


Province  Boundaries 
Circle  Boundaries 


Map  of  Egypt,  Showing  Provinces  and  Irrigation  Circles. 


13 

After  passing  the  custom-house  at  Alexandria  and  driving  through 
narrow  streets  to  the  railway  station  the  train  for  Cairo  is  boarded  and 
soon  the  country  is  reached  where  palm  trees  wave  their  tops  on 
either  side.  Lower  Egypt  in  the  vicinity  of  Alexandria  is  not  attrac- 
tive. Much  of  the  land  needs  draining  and  a  large  part  of  that  visible 
from  the  railway  train  is  devoted  to  the  growing  of  forage  grasses. 
Open  drains  can  be  seen  on  either  side  and  occasionally  large  canals 
parallel  the  track.  The  Mahmoudia  Canal,  which  supplies,  the  city  of 
Alexandria  with  fresh  water,  lies  on  the  north  side  of  the  railway  and 
it  is  visible  a  part  of  the  time  during  the  first  half-hour's  ride  toward 
Cairo.  A  roadway  is  provided  on  the  banks  of  the  canal  and  the 
native  traftic  is  fully  as  interesting  as  the  countr}^  through  which  the 
railway  has  been  built.  Long  lines  of  camels  loaded  with  cotton  are 
followed  by  others  carrying  huge  bundles  of  cotton  stalks  to  be  used 
for  fuel.  The  stalks  completely  cover  the  camels  so  that  it  appears  as 
if  the  burden  furnished  its  own  means  of  locomotion.  The  sails  of 
the  boats  on  the  canal  are  seen  when  the  banks  of  the  canal  are  low  or 
where  the  railway  grade  is  high,  and  at  times  a  view  of  the  hulls  and 
the  cargoes  is  obtained.  Cotton,  fruit,  straw,  sugar  cane,  and  vege- 
tables seem  to  be  the  chief  articles  of  exchange.  Between  15  and  20 
miles  from  Alexandria  the  first  cotton  fields  are  seen  on  the  south  side 
of  the  railwav.  Farther  on  camels  are  lying  in  the  fields  w^hile  the 
farmer  loads  on  their  backs  farm  products  of  different  kinds  in  readi- 
ness for  a  trip  to  some  nearb}^  market.  The  cotton  is  pressed  into 
bales,  which  are  left  on  the  ground  to  be  carried  later  to  a  water  front 
and  thence  to  Alexandria.  In  quality  the  cotton  is  second  only  to 
American  Sea  Island  cotton  and  the  United  States  secures  from  10  to 
60  per  cent  of  the  entire  Egyptian  staple.  The  towns  and  villages 
are  all  on  higher  ground  than  is  the  surrounding  farming  land.  This 
may  be  due  in  part  to  the  selection  of  the  site  and  in  part  to  the 
gradual  elevation  of  the  villages  as  the  buildings  crumble  and  new 
ones  are  erected  in  their  places.  The  markets  are  well  supplied  with 
fruits,  among  which  the  mandarin  and  other  oranges  seem  to  predom- 
inate. Dates,  figs,  bananas,  and  other  fruits  are  common.  The  cul- 
tivated land  grows  richer  as  the  Rosetta  branch  of  the  Nile  is 
approached.  The  tig  tree,  the  lebbek,  the  eucalyptus,  and  several 
varieties  of  the  palm  add  much  to  the  beauty  of  the  landscape.  Acacia 
trees  of  several  varieties  are  seen  here  and  there  and  the  mulberry 
and  numerous  kinds  of  thorn  trees  abound.  Vines  of  different  kinds 
trail  over  buildings  wherever  conditions  permit. 

The  Rosetta  branch  of  the  Nile  is  reached  after  a  ride  of  nearly  two 
hours.  It  is  63  miles  bv  rail  from  Alexandria.  The  river  is  broad 
and  is  covered  with  craft  of  various  kinds.  Just  beyond  is  the  village 
of  Kafr-ez-Zaiyat.  The  country  greatly  improves  bcA^ond  the  Rosetta 
branch  of  the  Nile,  and  the  farming  scenes  around  Tanta  can  not  be 


14 

surpassed  iu  Egypt.  Farmers  are  in  their  lields  cultivating  the  ground 
and  cleaning  away  cotton  stalks  and  other  vegetation  of  the  summer 
season.  Here  and  there  are  oxen  pulling  wooden  plows  and  farmers 
are  cultivating  by  hand  the  land  which  can  not  be  worked  conveniently 
in  any  other  way.  Along  some  of  the  canals  water-raising  machines 
are  in  operation.  Here  and  there  two  sturdy  men  are  swinging  a  basket 
and  lifting  water  from  a  canal  for  the  irrigation  of  nearby  farms. 
(See  p.  44.)  Herds  of  water  l)ufialo,  cattle,  sheep,  and  occasionally 
horses  can  be  seen  grazing  in  the  fields  of  clover. 

A  number  of  large  canals,  many  of  which  are  branches  of  the  Manu- 
fia  Canal,  which  leaves  the  Nile  at  the  head  of  the  delta,  are  seen  from 
the  train.  The  Damietta  branch  of  the  Nile  is  crossed,  and  after  pass- 
ing a  few  small  towns  and  crossing  a  deep  canal,  which  has  been  com- 
pleted since  the  occupation  b}^  the  English,  the  Pyramids,  20  miles 
away,  come  into  view,  and  Cairo  is  reached. 

Many  interesting  scenes  can  be  witnessed  in  Cairo  itself,  showing 
the  methods  employed  by  farmers  and  gardeners.  Between  Cairo  and 
Old  Cairo  to  the  south  are  a  number  of  small  tracts  of  farming  land 
where  the  native  may  be  seen  at  work.  Across  the  river  from  Cairo 
a  trolley  line  runs  to  the  Pyramids  of  Gizeh.  Along  this  for  a  distance 
of  6  or  T  miles  one  can  see  farmers  working  in  the  fields  almost  any 
time.  The  farms  spread  out  on  either  side  resemble  but  little  those 
with  which  we  are  familiar  in  the  United  States.  No  fences  are  seen 
and  no  houses  have  been  provided  on  the  farms  themselves.  The 
farms  are  narrow,  and  it  is  impossible  to  use  a  mowing  machine 
or  a  binder  on  some  of  them  for  this  reason.  Dwelling  houses  are 
found  only  in  the  villages,  except  where  perennial  irrigation  has  been 
practiced  for  many  years. 

Early  in  December  wheat  and  barley  are  just  sprouting  from  the 
ground  in  places  while  some  lands  are  being  prepared  for  the  seed. 
Clover  and  beans  are  usuall}'  well  advanced.  Corn  is  piled  here  and 
there  along  the  levees  where  it  is  to  be  husked  during  the  later  winter 
months.  The  fields  of  clover  on  either  side  are  dotted  with  bufi'alo 
and  other  live  stock.  The  farmer  himself  is  a  picture  not  to  be  for- 
gotten. His  long-flowing  black  or  white  gown,  while  not  appearing 
to  be  designed  for  the  convenience  of  a  laborer,  lends  attractiveness  to 
the  farming  scenes. 

The  view  from  any  point  along  the  road  to  the  Pyramids  is  full  of 
interest.  To  the  east  is  the  village  of  Gizeh,  the  Nile,  and,  beyond  it, 
Old  Cairo  and  the  hills  of  the  Arabian  Desert  on  the  horizon.  Either 
to  the  north  or  south  nothing  can  be  seen  but  green  fields,  canals, 
levees,  and  villages  of  sun-dried  brick,  sheltered  by  palms  and  other 
trees.  To  the  west  is  the  Lybian  Desert,  the  Pyramids  of  Gizeh,  and 
the  Sphinx.  The  latter  looks  over  the  farming  lands  below  and  across 
the  Nile,  as  it  has  for  2,800  years.     It  is  supposed  to  represent  the 


15 

king,  Amenemhet  III,  the  great  builder  and  the  reformer  of  the  practice 
of  irrigation  in  Egypt.  It  seems  that  the  famous  monument  to  him 
was  planned  so  that  it  shovdd  be  a  permanent  witness  of  the  career  of 
the  fellah  and  of  the  progress  of  irrigation. 

The  fellah,  although  he  has  been  ruled  V)y  one  foreign  power  after 
another,  has  been  almost  as  unchanging  as  his  surroundings.  AVhether 
from  lack  of  ingenuity  or  because  he  is  satistied  with  the  appliances 
of  his  forefathers,  the  Egyptian  makes  very  little  progress  in  the  con- 
struction or  use  of  agricultural  or  scientific  instruments.  The  writers 
of  the  hierogh'phs  on  the  temples  constructed  four  thousand  or  five 
thousand  years  ago  might  have  received  their  inspiration  from  scenes  in 
the  fields  to-day.  The  fellah  plows  his  ground  with  a  wooden  plow  or 
stirs  it  with  a  hoe  or  with  a  more  primitive  wooden  implement.  (PL 
II.)  He  cultivates  the  growing  crops  with  a  hoe  and  harvests  them  with 
a  sickle  or  pulls  the  stalks  from  the  ground  b}'  hand.  The  grain  is 
either  beaten  out  with  a  flail  or  trodden  and  chopped  out  by  means  of  a 
wooden  sledge  furnished  with  rollers  carrying  disks  and  drawn  by  oxen. 
Egyptian  agricultural  methods  would  not  look  so  much  out  of  place 
were  it  not  that  at  the  present  time  considerable  areas  are  owned  by 
foreigners  who  ha^e  adopted  modern  methods.  An  improved  thrash- 
ing machine  may  be  at  work  in  a  field  adjoining  a  plat  Avhere  a  native 
farmer  is  wearing  out  the  straw  in  thrashing  the  grain  ))y  a  primitive 
method  which  antedates  biblical  times.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  see  a 
steam  plow  and  one  pulled  by  a  camel  and  a  buffalo  working  in  adjoin- 
ing fields.  An  immense  modern  steam  pumping  plant  may  be  operated 
alongside  a  shaduf  or  a  sakiyeh,  and  the  native  when  interviewed  will 
point  with  pride  to  the  superior  machine  he  employs. 

After  visiting  the  great  barrage  below  Cairo  and  noting  how  the 
structure  is  maintained  by  the  government,  how  it  serves  as  a  bridge 
across  the  Nile  as  well  as  a  diversion  work,  how  well  the  navigation 
interests  of  the  Nile  and  the  large  canals  have  been  conserved,  and 
how  beautifulh'  the  grounds  of  the  southern  extremity  of  the  delta  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  dam  have  been  laid  out  in  parks,  the  writer  made 
arrangements  to  visit  the  Fayum  province  at  the  extremity  of  the  Bahr 
Yusef  Canal  (the  water  of  Joseph),  some  75  miles  southwest  of  Cairo. 
The  province  can  best  be  reached  by  rail,  going  from  Cairo  -lO  miles 
up  the  river  to  Wasta  and  there  changing  cars  for  the  capital  city, 
Medinet  el  Fayum.  The  morning  fixed  upon  for  the  trip  happened 
to  be  foggy  and  cold  for  Egypt.  But  little  could  be  seen  except  the 
country  h'ing  near  the  railroad.  Sugar  cane,  date-palm  trees,  and 
wheat  fields  abound  and  occasionalh'  fields  of  clover  and  beans  could 
be  identified.  After  leaving  Wasta  it  requires  a  run  of  only  a  few 
mmutes  to  reach  the  margin  of  the  cultivated  lands.  Soon  the  desert 
was  entered  and  no  sign  of  vegetation  could  be  seen.  Along  the  mar- 
gin of  the  valley  the  hills  break  off  abruptly  and  the  countiy  is  rather 


16 

rolling-,  but  as  soon  as  one  leaves  the  slope  toward  the  Nile  the  desert 
is  comparatively  i^at  and  uninteresting. 

After  traversing  the  desert  I'or  about  thirty  minutes  signs  of  culti- 
vation began  to  appear,  although  the  land  showed  that  the  water  sup- 
pi}^  had  not  been  adequate.  As  the  soil  is  sandy,  much  water  is  needed 
to  maintain  plant  growth.  But  few  trees  have  been  planted  in  this 
district  and  the  houses  of  the  farmers  are  scattered  here  and  there, 
indicating  that  their  location  had  not  been  fixed  b}^  any  prearranged 
plan.  As  the  flood  of  the  Nile  does  not  reach  the  Fa3'um.  the  village 
life  so  common  in  the  valley  of  the  Nile  is  not  essential.  As  Medinet 
el  Fa3^um  is  approached  the  countrv  takes  on  new  life  and  the  soil 
changes  to  a  black  loam  which  yields  all  kinds  of  crops  in  abundance. 
The  town  is  situated  along  the  bank  of  Joseph's  Canal,  which  furnishes 
the  life  of  the  province  and  adds  much  to  the  attractions  of  the  town. 

The  country  around  the  town  is  very  productive,  and  affords  an 
excellent  opportunity^  for  studying  Egyptian  agricultural  methods. 
The  entire  province  slopes  toward  a  lake  which  lies  along  the  margin 
of  the  desert  to  the  northwest  of  the  capital.  The  fall  of  the  countr}^ 
is  considerable,  enabling  the  farmer  to  irrigate  his  field  by  gravit}',  as 
is  done  in  the  United  States.  Many  lifting  devices  are  found  along 
the  canals,  however,  Avhich  serve  for  the  irrigation  of  lands  lying 
adjacent  to  them.  To  the  east  of  the  town  the  canal  is  less  attractive 
than  it  is  within  the  limits  of  the  capital,  because  it  is  more  tortuous 
and  the  material  which  has  been  taken  out  in  cleaning  the  channel  has 
been  deposited  in  heaps  along  the  banks.  The  thrifty  appearance  of 
all  growing  crops  is  sufficient  evidence  of  the  fertility  of  the  soil  and 
the  effectiveness  of  the  irrigation  S3'stem.  Many  trees  seldom  seen  in 
the  valley  of  the  Nile  can  be  found  in  this  province.  Among  these 
the  olive  predominates.  Date  palms,  oranges,  and  figs  are  extensively 
grown  and  the  vine  is  well  represented. 

The  conditions  of  the  Favum  have  changed  but  little,  as  far  as  we 
have  any  authentic  history,  since  the  time  Lake  Moeris  disappeared  to 
give  place  to  an  agricultural  communit3\  For  over  three  thousand 
years  the  province  has  been  cultivated  and  the  people  have  enjo3'ed 
more  of  peace  and  prosperit}'  than  have  the  farmers  in  the  valle}'  of 
the  Nile.  The  ruins  of  ancient  Crocodilopolis  lie  to  the  south  and 
west  of  the  present  capital,  and  to  the  east  on  the  edge  of  the  desert 
pyramids  and  ruins  of  immense  temples  are  found. 

In  returning  to  Cairo  the  day  was  clear,  and  the  entire  panorama  of 
desert  and  cultivated  land  was  spread  out  as  the  train  sped  along. 
Farmers  were  out  in  the  fields,  some  plowing  with  their  curious  wooden 
plows,  others  digging  with  the  hoe,  and  others  clearing  the  land  or 
cleaning  small  ditches.  Here  and  there  steam  plows  belonging  to 
some  larger  plantation  took  the  place  of  the  more  primitive  native 
implements.     Drainage  work  was  in  progress  in  places,  and  occasion- 


U.  S.  Dept   of  Agr  ,  Bui.  130,  Office  of  Expt.  Stations.      Irrigation  Investigations. 


Plate  |[, 


Fig.  1.— Plowing  with  Ox  and  Buffalo 


Fig.  2.— Plowing  Land  which  has  been  Baked  by  the  Sun. 


I 


\ 


i 


U.  S.  Deot.  of  Agr.,  Bui,  130   Office  of  Expt.  Stations.     Irrigation  Investigati 


Plate  III. 


17 

allv  a  piece  of  land  was  being  leveled;  crude  wooden  scrapers  drawn 
Iw  oxen  were  alternate!}'  filled  from  the  higher  places  and  emptied 
into  the  depressions.  Some  farmers  had  finished  plowing  and  were 
driving  oxen  attached  to  heav}'  framework  drags  to  break  the  clods 
and  smooth  the  surface  of  the  fields. 

The  journey  from  Cairo  to  Assuan  can  be  made  either  by  rail  or  by 
water.  Bv  rail  one  sees  the  canals  and  irrigated  fields  and  the  different 
methods  employed  in  tilling  the  soil  and  cleaning  water  channels.  B}^ 
boat  the  diversion  works  at  the  heads  of  canals,  the  water-raising  devices 
and  irrigation  structures  near  the  river  can  best  be  studied.  The 
journey  by  water  has  some  advantages  oyer  the  trip  b}'  rail.  The 
boats  have  regular  stopping  places,  where  the  surrounding  country  can 
be  studied,  and  as  the  valley  is  in  no  place  more  than  9  miles  wide,  a 
considerable  portion  of  the  farming  land  between  the  river  and  the 
desert  can  be  examined  in  a  few  hours. 

Leaving  Cairo  in  the  morning  b}'  rail,  Assuan  is  reached  the  next 
afternoon.  The  road  runs  south,  on  the  west  side  of  the  river,  parallel- 
ing the  Ibraimia  Canal  as  far  as  Assiut;  it  continues  then  to  Nagi 
Hamadi,  373  miles  from  Cairo,  where  the  river  is  crossed.  The 
southern  terminus  of  the  road  is  at  Chellal,  6  miles  south  of  Assuan. 
Probabh'  the  most  interesting  part  of  the  trip,  to  one  making  a  study 
of  irrigation  and  agriculture,  is  between  Caii'o  and  Assiut,  a  distance 
of  240  miles.  The  broad  Ibraimia  Canal  parallels  the  railroad  for 
some  distance  below  Assiut.  During  the  winter  it  is  dry  for  a  short 
time,  when  the  channel  is  hurriedly  cleaned.  Laborers  carrying 
basket.s,  which  are  filled  by  means  of  the  hoe,  swarm  the  banks  and 
bottoms  of  the  canal.  The  side  slopes  are  formed  accurately  and 
smoothed  with  that  instrument  in  a  way  seldom  equaled  in  the  United 
States.  There  are  no  plow  marks  along  the  banks  and  runvzays  for 
teams  are  unnecessar}^,  while  the  bare  feet  of  the  laborers  tend  to 
smooth  rather  than  scar  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  material  to 
be  excavated  has  been  cross-sectioned  and  each  man  or  company  of 
men  is  required  to  remove  a  certain  volume.  (See  PI.  HI.)  The 
more  industrious  make  the  better  wages. 

The  regulating  works  at  Dirut  can  best  be  examined  ])y  stopping  at 
the  station  for  a  few  hours.  These  are  representative  of  the  l)est 
regulators  in  Egypt.  Two  large  and  two  small  canals  ])egin  at  this 
place.  The  former  are  the  Bahr  Yusef  and  the  Ibraimia  canals,  while 
the  latter  are  the  Dalgawi  and  Dirutieh  canals.  Running  direct  from 
the  Nile  and  supplying  water  during  the  flood  is  the  Saheliyeh  Canal. 
The  masonr\^  works  run  from  the  j)oint  where  this  canal  enters  the 
channel  above  the  regulators  to  the  Ibraimia,  thence  to  the  Dirutieh, 
thence  to  the  Bahr  Yusef,  and  end  just  beyond  the  point  where  the 
Dalgawi  Canal  has  its  head.  The  works  are  su])stantially  built  and  are 
maintained  in  good  condition.  One  man  can  operate  the  gates  of  any 
27752— No.  130—03 2 


18 

of  the  canals  by  means  of  a  travelino-  winch.  On  the  east  bank  of  the 
channel,  about  500  feet  above  the  entrance  of  the  inlet  o-ates  of  the 
Saheliyeh  Canal,  is  a  waste  gate  which  discharges  surplus  water  into  a 
channel  connecting  with  the  Nile.  Tlie  Dalgawi  regulator  has  two 
gates,  each  nearly  1(>  feet  wide.  The  Bahr  Yusef  has  live,  the  Dirutieh 
has  three,  the  Ibraimia  has  seven,  and  the  entrance  regulator  of  the 
Saheliyeh  Canal  has  two  gates.  The  wastewa}^  has  live  gates.  The 
latter,  as  well  as  the  regulators  of  the  two  large  canals,  are  supplied 
with  locks  which  permit  the  passage  of  such  boats  as  are  employed  on 
these  waterways. 

The  Ibraimia  Canal  will  henceforth  be  supplied  at  all  times  of  the 
year  from  the  new  headworks  at  Assiut,  which  have  been  built  in 
conjunction  with  the  reservoir  work  at  Assuan  and  the  diverting  dam 
at  the  former  place.  The  latter  structures  are  described  elsewhere  in 
this  report. 

The  farming  countr}^  becomes  narrower  as  one  ascends  the  river 
from  Assiut.  No  perennial  irrigation  is  practiced  above  Assiut  except 
on  the  lands  h'ing  near  the  Nile,  which  are  served  by  water-raising 
devices  of  various  kinds.  The  Arabian  desert  breaks  off  abrupth^  on 
the  eastern  bank  of  the  river  in  many  places,  and  the  principal  areas 
of  farming  lands  are  found  on  the  western  side  of  the  river. 

Large  sugar  plantations  are  common,  and  at  the  principal  towns 
sugar  mills  are  in  operation.  Light  railways  have  been  built  through- 
out Egypt  wherever  demand  for  transportation  facilities  warrants  the 
outlay.  These  are  narrow-gage  roads,  and  the  rolling  stock  is  of  the 
lightest. 

The  Sohag  Canal,  which  was  probably  once  a  channel  of  the  river, 
irrigates  a  large  area  between  Assiut  and  the  town  of  Sohag  during 
the  tiood  of  the  Nile.  In  the  winter  it  lies  high  and  dry,  while  the 
adjoining  farms  are  green,  as  a  result  of  inundation.  At  Dendera, 
farther  up  the  river,  where  ruins  of  the  celebrated  temple  bearing  the 
same  name  have  been  found,  the  agricultural  lands  showed  that  a  sea- 
son of  adequate  water  supph^  had  been  enjoyed.  The  temple  was 
nearly  buried  by  the  crumbling  mud  bricks  of  a  village  which  grew 
up  about  it.  and  has  only  recenth^  been  thoroughly  excavated.  The 
farming  lands  reach  to  the  base  of  the  temple,  and  during  the  flood 
season  the  water  almost  touches  its  foundation.  The  giant  temple  of 
Amnion  at  Karnak  was  originally  surrounded  by  a  high  embankment, 
but  this  has  been  destroyed  in  places,  so  that  now  during  the  flood 
water  stands  to  a  considerable  depth  around  it.  The  ruins  cover  an 
area  1.3(»0  feet  long  and  I:(>0  feet  wide,  not  counting  some  of  the 
smaller  and  less  important  structures.  The  farms  extend  to  the  orig- 
inal protecting  wall  of  earth.  Between  Karnak  and  Luxor  can  be 
seen  an  escape  gate  which  is  opened  to  permit  the  water  of  the  basin 
to  flow  back  into  the  Nile  as  hio-h  water  recedes.     Across  the  river  the 


19 

Colossi  of  ]Memnon  stand  in  u  cultivated  tield  watered  l)y  wells  fur- 
nished with  sakiyehs. 

From  Luxor  to  Assuan  the  valley  contains  Init  little  of  interest. 
The  famous  quarries  where  the  Silsileh  hills  reach  the  water's  edge  on 
either  side  give  one  an  idea  of  the  immense  quantity  of  stone  which 
has  been  taken  out  for  all  kinds  of  masonry  work.  A  narrow  fringe 
of  palm  trees  lines  the  bank??  of  the  river  in  many  places,  and  the  area 
of  the  agricultural  land  is  limited  on  either  side. 

Assuan.  lying  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  just  below  the  lirst 
cataract,  is  tlie  Mecca  of  the  traveler  in  Upper  Egypt.  The  Ele- 
phantine Island,  lying  opposite  the  town,  in  the  river:  the  rough,  ster- 
ile deserts  on  either  side;  the  granite  points  on  land,  and  rocky  islands 
in  the  rapid  currents  of  the  cataract  each  add  to  the  interesting  fea- 
tures in  the  vicinity  of  the  town.  The  granite  quarries  in  the  desert 
to  the  east  and  north  of  Assuan  show  how  that  material  was  taken  out 
in  the  earlv  days  of  Egypt,  and  at  the  head  of  the  cataract  only  4 
miles  up  the  river  one  can  see  how  through  modern  engineering  appli- 
ances the  same  material  is  now  handled.  In  less  than  four  years  the 
engineers  of  the  Egyptian  Government  have  built  a  dam  containing 
1.000.000  cubic  3'ards  of  granite  masonry.  Machinerv  has  supplanted 
slave  labor;  and  where  thousands  of  men  were  formerly  required  to 
transport  large  volumes  of  stone  from  one  place  to  another  the  task  is 
now  easily  accomplished  by  employing  great  derricks,  steam  engines, 
and  improved  quarry  tools. 

By  the  river  it  is  but  1  miles  from  Assuan  to  the  head  of  the  cata- 
ract, where  the  great  dam  has  been  erected.  A  footpath  follows  the 
Nile,  another  passes  through  the  desert  in  a  direct  line,  while  the  rail- 
road runs  along  a  former  channel  of  the  river  farther  to  the  east. 
The  dam  is  seen  tirst  if  one  goes  by  either  footpath,  while  if  the  train 
is  taken  the  island  of  ^Philae  is  in  view  as  soon  as  the  traveler  alights 
at  Chellal.  Xo  one  can  forget  the  tirst  glimpse  of  this  island  and  the 
temples  with  which  its  surface  is  covered.  All  other  islands  in  the 
vicinity  of  Philae  are  high  and  rocky,  while  this  particular  one  i>  fiat 
and  well  adapted  for  the  purpose  to  which  it  has  been  dedicated. 
Two  miles  downstream  is  the  dam. 

The  engineers  in  charge  of  the  construction  of  the  dam  were  willing 
and  anxious  to  explain  the  construction  work  in  progress  and  make 
flear  the  function  of  the  reservoir  when  completed.  Some  of  the 
engineers  had  been  at  Assuan  from  the  day  the  tirst  work  commenced. 
They  enjoyed  an  ideal  climate  during  the  winter,  but  suti'ered  much 
from  the  continuous  heat  of  the  summer.  The  thermometer  ranges 
above  100^  F.  in  the  shade  between  the  early  spring  and  late  fall 
months.  It  often  reaches  120-  and  at  times  130-  during  the  summer. 
But  little  relief  is  ati'orded  at  night,  as  the  granite  rocks  give  otf  the 
heat  they  have  absorbed  durino-  the  dav. 


20 

Ten  thousand  workmen  were  engaged  on  the  construction  of  the  dam 
during  the  winter  of  1901-2.  These  men  were  poorly  paid  compared 
with  the  wages  of  those  employed  on  similar  work  in  the  United  States. 
They  furnished  their  own  su1)sistence  and  no  shelter  had  heen  provided 
for  them. 

The  best  view  of  the  dam  is  obtained  from  a  position  on  the  left  l)ank 
of  the  river,  just  downstream  of  the  structure.  From  this  point  its 
entire  length  is  visible.  Over  it  can  be  seen  the  neighboring  islands 
in  the  river,  beyond  which  is  Philae  and  its  ruined  temj^les.  In  the 
foreground  are  numerous  islets  which  break  the  river  into  many  small 
waterways. 

THE  NILE. 

The  Nile  is  among  the  longest  rivers  in  the  world,  being  in  this 
respect  in  the  same  class  with  the  Amazon,  the  Kongo,  and  the  Missis- 
sippi, but  in  discharge  it  is  much  below  many  rivers  having  shorter 
courses.  The  following  comparison  of  the  discharges  of  large  rivers 
shovv's  the  relative  position  occupied  by  the  Nile: 

Comparison  of  dhchavjes  of  the  XUe,  (ranges,  Trravaddy,  Brahmaputra,  and  Mississippi 

rivers. 


River. 


Nile  (at  Assuan) , 

Ganges  (British  India) 

Irra waddy  ( Burma ) 

Brahmaputra  (British  India ) . 
Mississippi  (at  St.  Louis)  ?> 


Length. 

Di.scharge. 

Drainage 

area. 

Maximnm. 

Minimum. 

Mean. 

Cubic  ft. 

Cubieft. 

Cubicjt. 

.Vile.«. 

per  see. 

per  see. 

l)er  sec. 

Square  miles. 

3,300 

459, 000 

10,000 

128,000 

1,300,000 

1.557 

494, 000 

36,000 

141,000 

391,000 

2, 532 

« 1,000,  000 

0  84,000 

350, 000 

150, 800 

1.700 

1,800.000 

146, 000 

520, 000 

361,300 

4.200 

994. 000 

33. 000 

126. 000 

1,226.400 

(I  Estimated. 


''Head  of  Missouri  to  mouth  of  Mississipp 


The  White  Nile  rises  in  Lake  Victoria,  in  central  Africa,  and  flows 
northerly,  emptying  into  the  Mediterranean,  3,30o  miles  from  its 
source.  From  Lake  Victoria  to  Khartum,  where  it  unites  with  the 
Blue  Nile,  is  a  distance  of  2.100  miles.  The  only  tributary  flowing 
into  the  Nile  below  the  junction  of  the  two  main  feeders  is  the  Atbara 
River,  about  190  miles  farther  north.  Both  the  Atbara  and  Blue  Nile 
rise  in  the  Abyssinian  ^fountains  and  flow  northwesterly.  From  the 
point  where  the  Saubat  River  joins  the  White  Nile,  2,370  miles  from 
the  Mediterranean,  only  two  tributaries  add  to  its  discharge,  and  for 
more  than  1,000  miles  the  river  passes  through  an  absolutely  barren 
country.  Even  after  it  enters  Egypt  the  width  of  the  cultivated  land 
can  almost  be  disregarded  in  comparison  with  the  broad  expanse  of 
desert  on  either  side. 

High  water  of  the  White  Nile  appears  during  June,  and  the  flood 
does  not  recede  until  October.  It  furnishes  a  more  uniform  flow  to 
the  irrigators  of  Nubia  and  Egypt  than  any  other  tributary.     It  derives 


21 

its  supply  from  the  heavy  rains  in  the  equatorial  reoions  where  it  has 
its  source.  The  high-water  season  of  both  the  Blue  Nile  and  the  Atbara 
begins  with  July  and  end;?  with  September.  These  two  streams  fur- 
nish nearly  all  of  the  sediment  which  has  built  up  the  valley  of  the 
river  in  Egypt  and  maintained  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  The  eliect  of 
the  high  water  from  all  sources  is  felt  at  Cairo  soon  after  the  1st  of 
August,  but  owing  to  the  demand  for  water  in  upper  Egypt  during 
the  late  summer  and  early  fall  months  extreme  high  water  does  not 
reach  Cairo  until  toward  the  end  of  September,  when  the  basins  have 
discharged  into  the  river. 

While  the  Nile  varies  each  year  in  discharge  it  is  a  singularly  steady 
stream,  and  in  this  respect  is  unlike  the  rivers  Avith  which  we  are 
familiar.  It  has  but  one  high- water  season  each  year,  and  this  begins 
and  ends  so  regularly  that  irrigators  know  when  to  prepare  for  the 
flood.  Although  the  stream  is  remarkable  in  this  respect,  its  varia- 
tions in  discharge  in  different  years  afi'ect  agriculture  greatly.  During 
years  of  low  Nile  large  areas  go  unirrigated.  In  average  years  the 
Nile  furnishes  sufiicient  water  to  bring  prosperity  to  Egypt.  Once 
in  fifteen  or  twenty  years  it  is  unusually  high,  when  large  areas  are 
devastated  by  floods.  If  a  sudden  rise  should  occur  in  the  Nile,  as  so 
often  happens  in  many  of  our  Western  streams,  it  would  be  a  great 
curiosit}'  to  the  natives. 

The  accompanying  chart  (fig.  1)  makes  a  comparison  between  the 
discharge  of  the  Nile  at  Assuan  and  of  the  Mississippi  at  St.  Louis. 
It  will  be  seen  that  the  discharge  of  the  Mississippi  is  very  irregular. 
High  water  may  appear  at  St.  Louis  at  any  time  between  April  and 
June,  and  this  maximum  discharge  may  range  from  250,000  to  nearlv 
1,000.000  cubic  feet  per  second.  The  maximum  discharge  of  the  Nile 
varies  from  300,000  to  4i!0,000  cubic  feet  per  second.  If  the  Nile 
varied  as  the  ^lississippi  does  at  St.  Louis,  agricultural  Egypt 
would  soon  cease  to  exist,  unless  the  great  volumes  of  water  which 
would  descend  at  flood  times  could  be  stored  and  the  flow  of  the  river 
equalized. 

Fig.  2  shows  the  relation  between  the  discharge  of  the  Nile  at 
A.-^suan  and  of  the  Missouri  at  Kansas  Citv  for  the  four  vears  beo-'m- 
ning  with  1897,  giving  the  maximum,  minimum,  and  mean  yearly 
discharges  for  these  four  years.  Both  streams  flow  through  arid 
countries.  The  Nile  rises  in  a  region  of  tropical  rains,  although  a 
considerable  portion  of  its  supply  comes  from  the  Ab^^ssinian  Moun- 
tains and  the  ranges  of  central  Africa.  The  Missouri  has  its  source 
in  the  snow-covered  liockies.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  high-water 
period  of  the  ^lissouri  may  occur  at  almost  any  time  between  the 
middle  of  April  and  the  1st  of  July,  while  the  Nile  reaches  its  maxi- 
mum near  the  1st  of  September.  The  discharge  of  the  two  streams 
is  about  the  same  durino-  Januarv  and  Februarv  and  durino-  the  first 


99 


JANUARY      FEBRUARY        MARCH            APRIL               MAY              JUNE 

^mm    -5      «     2S     *      '5     ^5    S      <5     25      S      ,S    25     S      >S     26      S      ,S     ZS 

960,000-      -              .                ..                         .      .             ... 

1                     SHOWING  DISCEARGES  OF  THE 

920,000-    -          -                       -----             d                MI9*il*=>9IPPI    AT    c;T  1   nillQ 

t              I   AND   THE    NILE    AT  ASSUAN 

EJOTIEME  HIGH  AND  LOW  WATER 

74nnnn           _      _     .   .  .          _                                                                       S    is    2S     s    is    2s     s    ,s    is    s     is    2S     s    is    ?s     6    is   zs 

1        "    ""'      T                                      "'"" 

loZ                                                                                                t 

«                              1 

KWnnn                                                                                          '>                                                     1 

■                ------                                  ---             ^^                         -                          h              ---          -----              

>« ^ 1 I  J. 

500  000                                                                                        '^ 

^                                                                                            i 
<•  60  COO                                                                                                                                             1 

1                       T          J 

|T              j 

!                                                        1                                                                                 i      r\ 

400,000—^--       -f-      I r.-^ -- 

3,0000        i                                                                   -.                                     t-4X-4 

320000        i                                              !             4/-I         i_A--   '^-:^-3U-      

<  i 

280,00c ---,--                       ^^^^ 

fvii           (                                                               1  '                                 '<  >  I 

220,00c ^.j^^^J j-                     J^^^ 

200,000 /It^V         T h                                               '"      ' 

,.ftno(ijl_               \     f     A     /      ,\        ^^^r           --       '-Ia           .     .    .       .      \    a-         ... 

A — 'iwiAzi  r  u  t1?    1  n          \  > 

I  ji  t  asr"  \i  rTst  ^  .4 t-'---^- 

"I^I'ii^ \1  ''  -4 -J --;^-- 

ilx-^fttr"":::::::::::::::::   ip--  ----5=, ■....:::. 

^, 00,000-^- Y                       -     -                             ^            ^Z-',,     1^                  ^    r 

B     60,000^^-/^ f-         <^,h      \1      -                        ^^                     +                        ..,,^ 

_    60,000  Utj.,                     •---,                                                   -             /                              ^^^    '^:'"-','"""-\?    ^ 

y   40,000 ^'^::.::._    "            1 '/"..:j'           '    '        --     --       --             --    --         r;j 

g„« +.,,,,,,,,,,,,„-,,^^^ 

Fig.  1.— Diagram  showing  discharge?  of  the  Mississippi  at  St.  Louis  and  of  theXile  at  Assuan, 


23 


part  of  August.     It  will  be  observed  that  the  discharge  of  the  Nile  is 
comparatively  uniform.   Avhile  that  of   the   ^Missouri  is  exceedingh^ 


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irregular.     The  absence  of  great  fluctuation  in  the  discharge  of  the 
Nile  can  probably  be  explained  by  the  fact  that  there  are  but  few 


24 

tributaries  to  the  main  .stream  and  no  local  precipitation  in  Nubia  or 
Egypt. 

The  ancient  Egyptians  worshipped  the  Nile  and  the  sun.  All  bene- 
fits came  from  these  two  sources.  The  inscriptions  on  man}^  of  the 
temples  show  the  Nile  in  different  phases  of  its  discharge,  and  many 
of  the  scenes  pictured  there  represent  the  rulers  or  priests  navigating 
the  river.  Unfortunateh^,  the  tourist  seldom  sees  the  Nile  in  flood. 
Instead  of  a  gigantic  river  he  sees  a  sluggish  stream  of  muddv,  unin- 
viting water.  Its  channels  are  filled  with  man}-  sand  bars.  Its  banks 
ma}'  be  protected  by  riprapping:  they  may  be  rocky  or  sandy  to  the 
water's  edge,  or  supporting  a  luxurious  growth'  of  wheat,  clover,  or 
beans.  As  the  river  falls  crops  are  planted  wherever  possible  to  the 
waters  edge  until  extreme  low- water  level  is  reached.  The  toujist 
observes  shadufs  and  other  water-raising  devices  by  thousands,  but 
•unless  he  travels  otherwise  than  by  boat  he  has  but  little  opportunity 
to  examine  these  curious  devices  for  carrying  water  over  the  high 
banks  of  the  Nile,  nor  does  he  see  much  of  the  land  which  is  watered 
in  4:his  wa}'.  He  often  leaves  Egypt  without  understanding  why  the 
Nile  should  be  known  as  the  Father  of  Rivers  and  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  in  the  world.  To  an  American  it  looks  like  the  Missouri 
below  Omaha  at  low  water.  The  similarity  would  be  even  more  strik- 
ing if  the  bluff's  bordering  the  Missouri  were  barren  sand  hills  instead 
of  being  covered  with  vegetation. 

The  low- water  period  of  the  Nile  continues  until  the  middle  of  July. 
The  critical  season  is  between  the  middle  of  May  and  the  middle  of 
July.  The  sun  shines  from  a  cloudless  sky  and  the  air  is  lilled  with 
dust.  Land  not  perennially  irrigated '-  is  cracked  with  heat  and  thor- 
oughly sun  baked.  Both  man  and  beast  suffer  for  water  except  where 
the  Nile,  the  perennial  canals,  or  wells  can  be  easily  reached.  Even 
the  branches  of  the  Nile  in  the  delta  are  practicalh^  dr\'  in  many  places, 
the  water  all  being  diverted  at  the  barrage  or  pumped  from  the  chan- 
nels of  the  river  below  this  structure.  During  the  first  part  of  July 
all  are  anxiously  awaiting  the  first  appearance  of  high  water.  About 
the  l'2th.  or  15th  of  August  the  basins  of  Upper  Egypt  begin  to  receive 
water.  The  canals  for  perennial  irrigation  in  both  Upper  and  Lower 
Egypt  are  then  running  bank  full  and  everyone  is  irrigating  the  crops 
so  lately  threatened  with  drought. 

About  the  1st  of  September  the  Nile  is  a  mighty  torrent,  having 
increased  from  12,000  cubic  feet  per  second  to  100,000  cubic  feet  per 
second  or  more.  Upper  Egypt,  with  the  exception  of  the  land  peren- 
nially irrigated,  is  a  lake  dotted  with  island  villages  for  thirty  to  forty- 
five  da3'S.  After  thirty  days  haA^e  expired  people  are  anxious  for  signs 
of  retreating  waters  and  eagerly  await  reports  from  Assuan  and  other 

«  Lands  along  deep  canals  which  always  carry  water  are  irrigated  throughout  the 
year,  hence  the  terms  '' perennially  irrigated,"  "perennial  irrigation,"  etc. 


25 

places.  It  is  believed  that  if  the  water  stands  on  the  land  more  than, 
forty  days  insects  will  be  plentiful  and  crops  will  be  partially  destroyed. 
By  prolonoed  high  water  the  planting  season  is  much  delayed  and  the 
harvest  extended  into  the  hot  spring  months,  which  greath'  reduces 
the  yield.  The  basins,  however,  can  not  be  drained  until  the  Nile 
begins  to  fall.  During  all  this  time  the  levees  must  be  watched  and 
an  army  of  men  working  without  compensation  is  called  out  for  this 
duty.  About  the  1st  of  October  the  flood  is  generally  over  and  the 
basins  begin  to  empty.  This  is  not  onh'  a  difiicult  operation  in  itself, 
but  the  volume  of  water  turned  back  into  the  Xile  causes  high  water 
on  the  lower  reaches  of  the  river  and  lengthens  the  period  during' 
which  the  l)anks  have  to  be  o'uarded.     In  the  delta  the  2sile  runs  above 


BAZNK  OF  RTV^KR 


Fig.  3.— Spur  to  prevent  erosion  of  river  bauk<. 

the  level  of  the  surrounding  agricultural  lands  and  a  breach  of  one  of 
the  embankments  means  an  immediate  overflow  of  the  neighboring 
countr}'. 

Changes  take  place  in  the  channel  of  the  Nile  during  each  season  of 
high  water.  Often  the  current  will  change,  and  where  there  had 
formerly  been  a  gradual  slope  and  considerable  agricultural  land 
a  steep,  caving  bank  will  remain.  The  lowlands  and  the  banks  of  the 
Nile  which  are  farmed  each  year  var^^  considerably  in  area  from  one 
season  to  another.  The  agricultural  land  adjacent  to  the  river  is 
perennially  irrigated,  and  therefore  highly  productive.  In  addition, 
the  Nile  banks  are  lined  with  buildings  and  expensive  pumping 
machinery.     To  protect  the  land  and  improvements  the  government 


300.632  Feet. 


308.976  Feet. 


308.320  Fe«t. 


26 

must  either  build  a  masomy  wall  or  reduce  the  slope  and  riprap  it.  It 
is  quite  common  to  put  spurs  in  the  banks  some  distance  above  the 
points  threatened  to  throw  the  current  farther  out  in  the  stream. 
This  is  often  a  dangerous  expedient,  as  the  current  thus  deflected  may 

do  considerable  damage  at  other  points. 
Fig.  3  shows  one  of  these  spurs  con- 
s*^ructed  by  the  government. 

NILE    GAGES. 

Much  has  been  w^ritten  about  the  flow 
of  the  Nile,  yet  it  has  never  been  care- 
fully measured  until  recently.  Although 
Nile  gages,  now  known  as  '' nilometers," 
were  established  at  an  early  date,  the 
relation  between  the  gage  heights  and 
the  discharge  was  never  determined  until 
during  the  last  half  centur3\  The  meas- 
urements flrst  made,  even  by  persons 
qualified  for  such  work,  were  rough  and 
can  be  regarded  as  only  approximate. 
The  use  of  the  current  meter  has  finally 
permitted  accurate  gagings  to  be  made, 
and  it  will  doubtless  not  be  long  until 
enough  of  these  have  been  taken  to 
give  value  to  the  gage  heights  alread\" 
recorded. 

On  many  of  the  rocks  along  the  Nile 
in  Nubia  extreme  high-water  levels  have 
been  recorded.  Such  marks  were  doubt- 
less the  earliest  gages  of  the  Nile.  Dur- 
ing the  past  few  years  some  old  gages 
have  been  discovered  at  Assiut  and  other 
points  along  the  river.  The  most  inter- 
esting and  among  the  most  ancient  of 
the  gages  are  on  the  island  of  Fhilae. 
The  two  which  can  be  seen  to-da}"  are  on 
the  west  side  of  the  island.  They  con- 
sist of  a  narrow  stairway  leading  by  a  short  subterranean  passage 
from  the  surface  of  the  ground  on  the  island  to  the  river.  The 
gages  are  placed  on  the  walls  of  this  passageway  aiid  are  in  sections 
of  3  or  4  feet  each.  The  ancient  gage  is  graduated  in  cubits  or 
pics  and  kirats.  On  the  Nile  gage  toward  the  south  end  of  the  island 
of  Philae  there  are  a  number  of  different  scales,  the  most  modern 
one  being  graduated  in  meters  and  centimeters,  similar  to  the  gage 
on  Elephantine  Island,  as  shown  in  the  accompanying  cut  (fig.  4). 


t- 


.307.664  Feet. 


307.008  Feet 
above  sea  level. 


Fig.  4.— NilometLT  on   tiie  Elphantiiie 
Island. 


27 

Instead  of  taking  the  bed  of  the  river  as  the  zero  of  the  scale,  it  is 
referred  to  mean  sea  level  at  Alexandria/'  It  is  impossible,  therefore, 
to  tell  the  depth  of  the  water  by  reading  the  scale.  The  gage  on  the 
south  end  of  Elephantine  Island  is  of  the  same  character  as  those  on 
the  island  of  Philae.  The  modern  gage  is  carefully  constructed,  being- 
inscribed  on  pieces  of  white  marble.  The  gages  at  Philae  are  the 
most  reliable,  as  the  channel  of  the  river  there  is  composed  of  granite, 
and  from  the  records  of  a  great  man}^  years  it  is  found  that  the  aver- 
age heights  of  the  river  have  varied  but  little.  The  gages  on  the 
Lower  Nile  are  of  little  value  in  comparison,  as  the  bed  of  the  river 
is  constanth'  changing. 

By  far  the  most  celebrated  of  the  gages  on  the  Lower  Nile  is  the 
one  on  the  island  of  Ehoda.  The  graduations  are  on  a  pillar  which 
stands  in  the  center  of  a  well,  the  bottom  of  which  is  connected  with 
the  Nile  by  a  passage.  This  column  is  of  stone,  octagonal  in  cross 
section,  and  the  well  in  which  it  stands  is  about  16  feet  square.  The 
nilometer  is  graduated  in  pics  and  kirats. 

At  the  present  time  the  irrigation  engineers  depend  for  their  first 
news  regarding  the  stage  of  the  Nile  on  telegraphic  reports  from 
Khartum.  The  people,  however,  look  to  Assuan  for  their  informa- 
tion and  are  scarcely  satisfied  until  reports  are  received  from  that 
place.  From  apjjroximate  gagings  made  of  the  Nile  at  Assuan  the 
writer  has  prepared  a  rating  table,  from  which  the  yearly  discharges 
of  the  river  have  been  computed,  as  shown  in  figs.  2  and  3.  These 
diagrams  are  trustworthy  only  in  so  far  as  the  gagings  are  assumed 
to  be  correct. 

The  English  engineers  have  established  gauges  at  a  number  of  points 
along  the  Nile  above  Assuan,  among  which  are  those  at  Khartum,  Ber- 
ber, ^A"ad3'  Haifa,  and  Lake  Victoria.  From  the  reports  received  from 
these  gaging  stations  the  engineers  know  approximately  what  kind  of 
a  flood  to  expect  each  year,  and  the  irrigator  is  advised  accordingly. 

AGmCULTURAL    SEASONS. 

There  are  three  agricultural  seasons  in  Egypt.  The  land  not  receiv- 
ing perrennial  irrigation  can  take  advantage  of  but  one.  This  begins 
as  early  as  the  middle  of  October  and  ends  with  March.  The  crops 
grown  then  under  the  basin  system  are  sown  immediately  after  the 
subsidence  of  the  flood,  hence  the  time  of  planting  depends  upon  when 
the  fields  become  dry  enough  for  the  seed  (PL  IV).  The  lands  in 
southern  Egypt  are  generally  ready  for  the  seed  about  the  beginning 
of  November.  In  the  Delta  crops  are  often  planted  as  late  as  the  20th 
of  December.     Wheat  is  the  principal  winter  crop,  although  clover, 

f  In  the  same  manner  the  height  of  a  dam  or  other  structure  is  usually  given  Ly 
referring  to  the  actual  elevation  of  its  base  and  top  above  sea  level. 


28 

barley,  beans,  and  man}'  other  products  are  quite  commonh^  raised. 
The  ground  is  seldom  plowed  before  the  wheat  is  planted.  The 
seed  is  scattered  over  the  still  moist  soil  by  hand,  and  it  is  either 
tramped  into  the  ground  b}'  the  cattle  or  pressed  in  with  a  primitive 
wooden  roller.  Sometimes  the  ground  is  beaten  with  a  piece  of  wood 
and  the  grain  actualh^  driven  into  it.  The  harvest  in  extreme  upper 
Eg3'pt  begins  in  Februarj^  and  is  in  progress  down  the  river  until  the 
middle  of  April.  In  upper  Egypt  the  winter  harvest  is  the  most 
important  of  the  3'ear  because  a  large  part  of  the  land  there  depends 
wholl}^  upon  the  ancient  S3'stem  of  flood  irrigation. 

The  summer  crops  are  grown  between  April  and  August  (PI.  V). 
However,  a  great  man}'  crops  arc  planted  in  April  and  Ma}-  which 
are  not  harvested  until  the  following  fall  or  winter.  Among  these  are 
cotton,  sugar  cane,  and  rice,  the  most  valuable  crops  grown  in  Egj-pt. 
Rice  is  generally  planted  in  Ma}'  and  is  not  harvested  until  the  follow- 
ing November.  During  exceptionally  dry  seasons  a  different  variety, 
which  ripens  in  from  seventy  to  one  hundred  days,  is  planted  quite 
late  in  the  summer.  Owing  to  the  short  time  required  for  its  growth 
it  is  known  as  sebani  rice,  meaning  seventy-day  rice.  Cotton  is  sown 
in  April  and  picked  in  November  or  December.  Sugar  cane  is  planted 
about  the  same  time,  and  harvested  in  the  following  January  and 
February. 

The  third  season  has  a  lenofth  of  about  eio-htv  davs,  running  from 
August  to  October  and  sometimes  until  November.  During  this  time 
considerable  sorghum  is  raised,  the  stalks  of  which  the  natives  eat. 
Corn  is  the  chief  crop  grown,  and  is  second  only  to  wheat  among 
Egyptian  cereals  in  yield.  It  is  probably  the  most  valuable  crop  to 
the  poorer  classes.  As  soon  as  it  ripens  it  is  cut  or  pulled  up  by  the 
roots  and  piled  on  the  levees,  where  the  stalks  dry  thoroughly  and 
where  the  corn  is  husked.  The  corn  on  the  ears  is  then  piled  on  the 
ground  where  the  earth  is  firm  and  the  grain  is  beaten  from  the  cob 
by  heavy  sticks  in  the  hands  of  the  farmers.  (PI.  VI.  fig.  1.)  The 
corn  is  next  ground  or  crushed  and  bread  is  made  directly  from  it,  or 
it  is  mixed  with  bean  flour  before  being  prepared  for  food.  Wheat 
is  thrashed  by  a  method  almost  as  crude.  A  sledge  furnished  with 
rollers  carrying  metal  disks  is  pulled  by  oxen,  which  travel  around  a 
stack  of  wheat  until  the  straw  is  thoroughly  chopped  and  the  grain  is 
separated  from  it.  (PL  VI,  fig.  2.)  The  whole  mass  is  then  tossed  in 
the  air  and  the  wind  blows  away  the  lighter  material  while  the  grain 
falls  to  the  ground.  This  latter  process  is  very  tedious,  as  the  straw 
has  to  be  handled  many  times  before  the  grain  is  all  separated  and 
cleaned. 


U.  S.  Dept   of  Agr  ,  Bu'.  130    Office  of  Expt    Stations.      Irrigatior,  Investigations. 


Plate  IV. 


Fig.  1.— Irrigation  Basin  Near  Pyramid  of  Gizeh. 


Fig.  2.— Irrigation  Basin  West  of  Cairo,  Water  Returning  to  Nile  in  Channel. 


U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr..  Bui.  130.  Office  of  Expt.  Stafions.     Irrigation  Investigations. 


Plate  V. 


^JLIIimJ 


Fig.  1  .—Irrigating  Strawberries. 


Fig.  2. -Perennial  Irrigation,  Wheat  Field  Under  Check  System  of  Irrigati 


U,  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Bui.  130,  Office  of  Expt.  Stations.      Irrigation  Investigations.  PLATE   VI. 


Fig.    1. — Ti^inAoriM-c    i.^UI^.^    '^ORN. 


^, 


Fig.  2.— Thrashing  Wheat. 


S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Bu 


I-  '30,  Office  of  Expt.  Stat, 


0"s.      Irngatior.  Investigations. 


Plate  VII. 


29 

FARMS  AND  VILLAGES. 

The  term  "village'*  as  used  in  Egypt  refers  generally  to  an  area 
of  land  surrounding  and  including  a  town.  The  farmers  haA'e  their 
dwellings  in  the  towns.  In  the  portions  of  Egypt  subject  to  inunda- 
tion they  are  obliged  to  retreat  to  the  towns  during  high  water.  A 
frontage  on  the  river  or  other  source  of  water  supply  is  always  desir- 
able and  these  channels  are  generally  boundary  lines  of  farms,  the 
dimensions  of  which  are  as  unusual  as  the  tools  used  in  cultivating  the 
ground.  To  enable  the  greatest  number  to  enjo}^  the  advantages  of  a 
water  front  the  width  dimension  of  the  farm  usually  lies  along  the 
river  or  canal.  Where  water  channels  do  not  exist  it  has  become  the 
custom  to  establish  a  few  lines  by  permanent  monuments.  These  lines 
then  become  the  end  boimdaries  of  the  farm.  When  a  small  area  is 
sold  its  length  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  original  tract  and  its  width  is 
laid  ofi'  along  the  lines  fixed  by  permanent  monuments.  As  the  area 
owned  or  cultivated  by  each  fellah  is  small,  their  farms  are  long  and 
narrow.  A  square  piece  of  land  containing  the  same  area  could  be 
worked  to  much  o-reater  advantage. 

The  accompanying  map  (PL  VII)  shows  the  subdivisions  of  the  farm- 
ing lands  of  the  village  of  Talbia,  near  Cairo.  The  holdings  are  small 
in  the  neighborhood  of  this  village  and  the  land  is  quite  productive. 
The  areas  of  ten  farms,  selected  more  or  less  at  random,  ranged  from 
0.02  to  1.04:  acres. 

Any  small  district  throughout  which  the  productiveness  and  there- 
fore the  rate  of  taxation  is  unusually  uniform  is  known  as  a  hod.  The 
farms  of  each  hod  are  numbered  independently.  The  official  records 
therefore  ma}^  refer  to  farm  Ko.  10,  hod  No.  G,  of  the  village  of  Talbia. 
The  maps  compiled  from  government  surveys  show  the  farms  and 
hods  with  their  numbers,  permitting  any  particular  farm  to  be  identi- 
fied. '  Fences  are  not  provided  along  farm  boundaries,  as  they  would 
occupy  too  much  land. 

In  the  survey's  for  the  finance  ministry,  villages  are  mapped  inde- 
pendently. It  is  almost  impossible  to  make  up  from  these  separate 
surve3\s  a  general  map  showing  a  number  of  villages,  as  the  boundaries 
of  the  villages  are  irregular  and  discrepancies  always  occur  in  approx- 
imate work  of  this  kind.  A  survey  of  the  boundary  between  two 
villages  defined  by  a  canal  or  other  water  course  may  be  made  during 
the  season  of  high  water.  At  the  time  it  may  be  impossible  to  locate 
the  water  channel  accurately  on  the  map.  If  the  adjoining  village  be 
surveyed  during  low  water,  it  is  easy  to  see  that  maps  made  from  the 
surveys  would  not  fit  when  applied  to  each  other.  Outside  of  these 
surveys,  the  Government  possesses  little  information  regarding  the 
topography  of  the  country. 

Under  the  French  occupation  some  general  surveys  were  made,  but 
no  monuments  were  established.     The  Enolish  eno-ineers  are  makino- 


30 

a  survey  of  Egypt  and  are  establishing-  monuments  in  some  cases.  It 
is  doubtful  whether  these  will  have  any  great  permanent  value  as  they 
are  not  tied  to  guide  meridians  or  standard  parallels.  The  lack  of 
monuments  in  the  surveys  of  the  villages  makes  it  necessary  for  the 
farmers  in  the  districts  inundated  to  resurvev  their  lands  after  each 
subsidence  of  the  water.  A  few  permanent  monuments  may  always 
be  found  in  the  villages  and  from  these  the  rest  of  the  land  is  laid  out. 

The  work  is  repeated  until  a  majority  are  satisfied  that  the  land  has 
been  properh'  measured.  It  would  cost  the  farmer  only  5  or  10 
cents  per  stone  to  establish  permanent  monuments  at  the  corners  of 
his  farm,  but  so  fixed  has  become  the  custom  of  remeasuring  the  land 
each  year  that  it  is  preferred  to  a  more  convenient  system. 

English  engineers  in  the  survey  department  are  handicapped  not 
only  by  their  inabilit}^  to  secure  the  best  kind  of  assistance  in  the  field, 
but  by  existing  surveys  recognized  ))y  the  native  farmer.  His  ances- 
tors measured  land  to  their  satisfaction,  and  he  is  content  to  follow 
their  example,  not  only  in  the  surveys  but  in  the  computation  of  field 


Fig.  5. — Diagram  showing  inac-curafv  of  land  measurements. 

notes.  The  Egyptian  has  a  special  formula  for  computing  the  area  of 
land  to  which  he  adheres  with  a  steadfastness  which  would  be  praise- 
worthy in  a  better  cause.  For  instance,  when  a  triangular  piece  of 
ground  is  to  l)e  surveyed,  only  the  lengths  of  the  sides  are  taken.  To 
compute  the  area  the  lengths  of  two  adjacent  sides  are  added,  the  sum 
is  divided  b}^  2,  and  this  quotient  is  multiplied  by  the  length  of  the 
remaining  side  divided  ]>y  2.  If  the  figure  happens  to  be  a  quadri- 
lateral, the  two  opposite  sides  are  added  together  and  divided  by  2 
and  the  quotient  is  multiplied  by  the  two  remaining  sides  added 
together  and  divided  b}'  2.  Putting  the  foimula  in. figures  and  refer- 
ring to  the  accompanying  diagram,  the  inaccuracy  of  the  method  may 
be  plainly  seen  (fig. 5  ). 

,        ab  -f  be     ac 
Area  ot  triangle  =  — ^ —  X  -^ 

.         1  -w      1     ab-f  cd     ac4-bd 
Area  ot  (quadrilateral  = ^ X ^ 


31 

The  formula  for  the  area  of  a  triangle  never  gives  accurate  results. 
The  formula  for  a  quadrilateral  is  correct  only  when  the  figure  is  a 
rectangle. 

A  few  vears  ao-o  an  investio-ation  was  made  to  determine  the  averao-e 
size  of  the  land  holdings  in  Egypt.  At  the  same  time  considerable 
information  was  gathered  regarding  the  number  of  farms  and  as  to 
whether  the  owners  were  natives  or  foreigners.  It  was  found  that 
foreigners  owned  5,139  farms,  having  a  total  area  of  233,838  acres. 
The  average  size  of  these  farms  was  therefore  15.87  acres.  There 
were  22.699  farms  owned  by  natives  who.  having-  considerable  intiu- 
ence.  had  secured  titles  to  large  areas  under  the  conditions  prevail- 
ing prior  to  the  occupation  of  the  English.  These  people  held 
1.420.1S7  acres,  the  average  size  of  the  holdings  being  62.59  acres. 
There  were  502,810  farms  belonging  to  the  peasantry.  The}'  owned 
2.752,500  acres,  making  the  average  size  of  their  holdings  5.17  acres. 
The  total  number  of  farms  in  Egypt  was  530,518.  The  total  culti- 
vated area  exclusive  of  state  lands  and  the  area  administered  by  the 
Daira  Sanieh  was  1.106,525  acres.  The  aveiTige  size  of  an  Egyptian 
farm  was  therefore  8.3  acres.  The  total  population  of  Egypt  at  the 
time  the  census  was  taken  was  6.751.050.  so  that  one  person  in  twelve 
was  a  landowner,  while  8<  >  per  cent  of  the  landholders  owned  less  than 
10  acres  each. 

COST  OF  RAISING  CROPS  AND  VALUE  OF  FARM  PRODUCTS. 

The  cost  of  raising  dilierent  crops,  as  well  as  the  yield  of  the  same, 
varies  greatly  throughout  Egypt.  Crops  grown  in  the  winter  on 
lands  employing  the  basin  system  of  irrigation  can  be  matured  much 
cheaper  than  those  grown  under  perennial  irrigation  where  water  must 
be  lifted.  In  the  best  agricultural  districts  of  Upper  Egypt  sugar 
cane  is  the  most  valuable  crop.  In  preparing- the  ground  for  seed  and 
sowing  the  same  an  outlay  of  about  S7  per  acre  must  be  met.  The 
seed  costs  from  81  o  to  '612  per  acre,  irrigation  about  ^10.  cultivating 
and  harvesting  '^11,  making  the  total  cost  per  at-re  amount  to  Sl()  or 
815  per  acre.  If  the  land  requires  fertilizers  the  cost  of  these  may 
make  the  yearly  expense  ^2.5<»  higher.  The  yield  of  sugar  cane  aver- 
ages about  32  tons  per  acre,  which  is  worth  8128.  The  net  profit  from 
an  acre  of  sugar  cane  is,  therefore,  between  88u  and  8^5  per  acre.  If 
the  land  is  rented  the  tenant  probabh'  pays  from  one-third  to  one-half 
of  the  crop  to  the  owner.  The  landowner  pavs  between  85  and  810  in 
taxes  each  year  on  such  land.  The  cost  of  raising  cotton  in  Upper 
Egypt  is  about  one-third  as  much  as  for  raising  sugar  cane,  while  the 
net  profit  approximates  850  per  acre,  or  about  five-eighths  as  much. 
The  cost  of  raising  other  crops  runs  from  81  to  86  per  acre  in  Upper 
Egypt.  The  principal  crops  grown  there  in  order  of  their  importance 
are  sugar  cane,  cotton,  wheat,  Indian  corn,  millet,  vegetables,  beans. 


32 

and  clover.  Some  fruit  is  o-rown.  especially  in  the  Fayum.  where 
orano-es,  lemons,  limes,  olives,  etc..  are  quite  common. 

In  the  southern  half  of  the  delta  sugar  cane  is  grown  principal!}' 
for  eating  purposes.  The  cost  of  raising  the  cane  there  is  about  the 
same  as  in  Upper  Egypt.  l)ut  the  net  profit  derived  from  the  ground 
is  about  twice  as  great.  Fruits  of  different  kinds  are  among  the  most 
profitable  crops  of  this  portion  of  Egypt.  The  date  is  grown  exten- 
sivelv,  and  a  special  tax  is  levied  on  this  fruit.  When  a  tree  is  cut 
down  another  must  be  planted  in  its  place.  The  government  revemie 
from  an  acre  devoted  to  raising  dates  runs  from  :$10  to  $45  per  acre. 
The  cost  of  cultivating  the  ground  approximates  $50  per  acre,  while 
the  net  profit  is  about  §150  per  acre,  (considerable  land  is  devoted 
to  the  growing  of  different  vegetables.  The  cost  of  raising  vegetables 
averages  about  $15  i^ev  acre,  while  the  net  profit  from  the  ground  is 
about  $55  per  acre. 

While  some  cotton  is  grown  in  the  northern  half  of  the  delta,  this 
portion  of  Egypt  must  be  regarded  as  essentiall}'  a  rice  district.  The 
net  profit  from  the  cotton  fields  is  about  $25  per  acre,  while  rice  pays 
from  $6  to  $18  per  acre  only.  Much  of  the  rice  grown  in  this  portion 
of  Egypt  is  planted  on  ground  which  is  being  reclaimed  and  put  in 
condition  for  the  production  of  more  valuable  crops.  Indian  corn, 
barley,  wheat,  and  clover  are  the  other  crops  grown  in  the  northern 
portion  of  the  delta.  Some  fruit  is  produced  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
towns  and  A'illages. 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  EGYPTIAN  IRRIGATION. 

Originally  all  of  the  agricultural  lands  along  the  Nile,  except  a 
narrow  strip,  depended  upon  the  flood  of  the  river  for  irrigation.  But 
one  crop  could  be  grown  each  vear,  and  this  in  the  winter  time.  Dur- 
ing the  remainder  of  the  year  the  land  remained  fallow.  Most  of  the 
large  canals  were  built  during  the  twelfth  dynasty  (2200-1600  B.  C). 
Levees  were  built  along  the  Nile  and  the  farming  land  was  divided  into 
basins,  Avhich  were  filled  with  water  from  canals  when  the  river  rose 
to  a  marked  place  at  the  head  of  the  El  Khalig  Canal  at  Cairo.  As 
soon  as  this  height  was  reached  word  was  sent  throughout  Egypt: 
the  temporary"  earthen  embankments  at  the  heads  of  the  canals  were 
then  broken,  and  the  water  ran  to  the  ))asins.  If  the  Nile  failed  to 
rise  sufiiciently  high  to  furnish  water  for  the  basins,  considerable 
suffering  resulted.  If  the  river  was  too  high,  embankments  would 
break,  levees  would  be  washed  away,  and  widespread  desolation  would 
result.  It  was  not  onh^  necessarv  to  fill  the  basins  with  water,  but  the 
water  had  to  be  red  with  silt  from  the  mountains  and  plains  of  Ab3^s- 
sinia.  If  the  land  failed  to  receive  the  deposit  of  red  mud,  the  3^ield 
would  be  reduced.  Emptying  the  basins  was  even  more  diflicult  than 
filling  them.     The  lower  l)asins  had  to  be  emptied  first,  or,  if  good 


U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  B'j:.  ',30,  0-fice  cf  Expt.  Stations.      Irrigation  Investigations. 


Plate  Vlll. 


U.  S.  Dept  of  Agr.,  Bu'.   "30    O*^  ce  c-^  Exo-,  Statiors.      Irrigat'on  kvestig-afions. 


Plate  IX. 


riG    1.  — Caviels  Carrying  Ruins  of  Village  to  be  Used  fur  Ft 


Fig.  2.— Cleaning  a  Small  Canal. 


83 

regulators  were  provided  between  them,  the  water  from  all  could  be 
run  at  once.  If  one  of  the  embankments  of  an  upper  basin  broke,  it 
meant  devastation  to  everything  below.  The  basins  could  not  be 
emptied  until  the  Nile  began  to  recede,  and  there  was  nearly  as  much 
danger  in  having  the  flood  continue  '?oo  long  as  in  not  having  a  sufii  ^ 
cient  supply  of  water.  This  system  has  survived  to  the  present  time. 
While  the  basins  first  laid  out  were  crude,  they  have  developed  after 
many  years  of  experience  into  well-regulated  systems.  Expensive 
regulators  have  been  constructed  and  canals  have  been  made  large 
enough  to  carry  water  to  supply  the  land  they  were  intended  to  serve. 
The  escapes  into  the  Nile  have  ))een  perfected.  The  land  near  the 
Nile  is  above  the  level  of  the  adjoining  farms  (fig.  6).  For  this  reason 
it  is  diflicult  to  till  the  basins  near  the  Nile  embankments.  The  grade 
of  the  Xile  varies  from  one-half  to  one-third  of  a  foot  per  mile. 
Owing  to  this  slight  fall  the  canals  have  to  be  quite  large,  because 
their  grade  must  be  less  than  that  of  the  river.  Even  under  the  most 
favorable  conditions  thev  can  not  o-ain  more  than  a  small  fraction  of  a 


FEET   5,oOO      10,000     13,000     20,000     23,000 

30.000     3o,000     40,0OO     45,000     50,000            | 

0 

r.« 
1 

20 

Canal 

2 

B 

1 

S 

1 

s 

J 

£ 

1 

■"^ 

"~~-^ 

'~~~~~ 

A^ 

1 

SO 

V 

1 

1 

Fig.  6. — Typical  cross  section  of  the  Nile  Valley 


foot  per  mile  over  the  river.  When  a  canal  reaches  the  edge  of  the 
desert,  or.  in  other  words,  covers  all  of  the  arable  land  except  the  Nile 
berm.  it  follows  the  desert  until  a  new  canal  is  taken  out.  when  the 
first  canal  siphons  under  the  new  one  and  covers  the  hi<yh  land  alono- 
the  river.  The  second  canal  proceeds  in  the  same  way  and  siphons 
under  the  third.  By  this  system  canals  can  be  made  to  serve  the 
entire  area  of  agricultural  land. 

PI.  VIII  shows  a  portion  of  the  Nile  Valley  in  the  province  of  Keneh 
where  the  river  has  a  general  course  from  east  to  west.  The  strijD  of 
irrigated  land,  bounded  by  right  lines,  is  in  no  place  over  7  miles  wide. 
It  will  ))e  seen  that  the  Rannan  Canal  heads  at  the  right,  on  the  south 
bank  of  the  river,  and  that  the  Marashdah  Canal  siphons  under  it  just 
below  the  point  of  diversion.  The  latter  canal  is  on  a  higher  line  at 
their  intersection  and  waters  the  elevated  lands  along  the  berm  of  the 
Nile  for  12  miles  below  the  siphon.  The  Rannan  Canal  continues 
westerly  and  soon  covers  all  the  land  to  the  border  of  the  desert.  Just 
27752— No.  13u— 03 3 


34 

before  it  reaches  the  Heu  Escape,  which  was  built  to  empt}^  the  basins 
aboA^e  the  south  side  of  the  river,  it  divides,  one  branch  serving  the 
high  lands  along  the  desert  and  the  other  furnishing  water  to  the 
basins  near  the  Nile.  The  basin  V^oundaries  are  shown  by  dotted  lines. 
The  canal  and  basin  83^stem  on  the  north  side  of  the  river  are  also 
shown.  There  are  small  areas  here  and  there  in  Upper  Egypt  which 
are  irrigated  from  wells,  but  the  larger  part  of  the  land  is  still  flooded 
by  the  Nile  and  enriched  by  its  sediment,  as  it  has  been  for  thousands 
of  3' ears  past. 

But  this  ancient  system  of  irrigation  has  one  great  drawback — but 
one  crop  can  be  raised  each  year,  while  all  other  conditions,  except 
the  water  supph^,  favor  the  raising  of  several  crops.  Recognizing 
this,  Mohammed  Ali  in  1837  began  reforms  looking  to  the  supph-ing 
of  water  to  crops  during  the  whole  year.  The  great  barrage  at  the 
head  of  the  delta  was  begun  in  1843,  as  a  part  of  the  plans  for  peren- 
nial irrigation.  The  first  perennial  canals  were  in  the  delta  and  the 
FaA^um,  but  the  system  is  being  gradually  extended  to  the  south,  the 
country  between  Cairo  and  Assiut  being  in  a  state  of  transition,  and 
the  recent  great  works  at  Assuan  and  Assiut  being  for  the  purpose  of 
increasing  the  area  supplied  with  water  throughout  the  year. 

The  returns  from  the  soil  have  been  greatly  increased  by  the  adop- 
tion of  perennial  irrigation.  However,  this  s^^stem  is  accompanied 
with  certain  drawbacks.  Only  by  the  old  flood-irrigation  s^^stem  can 
the  land  receive  any  considerable  amount  of  rich  Nile  silt,  and  Avhen 
two  or  three  crops  per  A^ear  are  taken  from  the  ground  the  soil  deteri- 
orates quite  rapidl}^  Artificial  fertilizers  are  necessar}^,  and  these 
are  expensive  in  Egypt.  The  principal  supply  of  fertilizer  at  present 
is  from  the  ruins  of  old  towns  and  villages.  This  is  simply  the  Nile 
deposit  which  has  been  used  in  times  past  in  the  manufacture  of  brick 
for  the  construction  of  houses,  impregnated  with  more  or  less  fertiliz- 
ing matter  derived  from  the  village  wastes.  Long  lines  of  camels 
may  be  seen  carr^dng  this  material  to  the  farms.  (PI.  IX,  fig.  1.) 
Sometimes  it  is  to  be  transported  10  or  15  miles  or  farther,  each  camel 
carr34ng  about  600  pounds,  distributed  between  two  wicker  panniers 
thrown  across  his  back. 

THE  CANALS  OF  THE  NILE  VALLEY. 

As  has  just  been  pointed  out,  there  are  at  the  present  time  two 
kinds  of  canals  in  Egypt.  First,  the  perennial  canals  of  the  delta, 
which  date  from  the  time  of  Mohammed  Ali;  the  Ibraimia  canal,  and 
the  canals  of  the  Fayum,  built  like  those  in  the  United  States,  with 
the  idea  of  receiving  water  throughout  the  year  or  whenever  crops 
need  irrigation.  The  water  of  these  canals  generall}^  runs  below  the 
level  of  the  irrigated  lands.  Second,  the  flood  canals,  for  filling  the 
basins  in  Uppei*  Egypt,  which  leave  the  river  on  a  much  higher  level 
relative  to  its  bed. 


35 

In  the  province  of  Assuan  there  are  two  canals  on  the  left  and  four 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  river.  These  supply  all  the  basins  in  that 
province  during  the  flood  season.  The  onh^  area  watered  throughout 
the  3^ear  is  a  narrow  strip  bordering  the  Nile  and  other  water  courses 
csLVYjing  a  supply  at  all  times.  In  the  province  of  Keneh  there  are  8 
canals  taking  water  from  the  west  bank  of  the  river  and  13  diverting 
water  from  the  east  bank.  In  the  province  of  Girgeh  11  canals  divert 
water  from  the  left  and  5  from  the  right  bank. 

Among  those  on  the  left  bank  is  the  great  Sohagia  Canal,  one  of  the 
oldest  water  channels  in  Egypt.  It  supplies  340,000  acres  of  land. 
At  its  lower  extremity  the  Yusef  Canal  begins,  being  a  continu- 
ation of  the  Sohagia.  So  ancient  are  these  channels  that  they  have 
lost  much  of  their  resemblance  to  the  canals  of  to-day  and  are  now  con- 
sidered natural  channels.  They  are  very  tortuous,  and  run  at  but 
slightly  higher  levels  than  the  Nile.  At  its  head  the  Sohagia  is  230 
feet  wide  on  the  bottom,  278  feet  wide  on  top,  and  carries  a  maxi- 
mum of  18  feet  of  water  in  depth.  Its  discharge  is  about  15,000  cubic 
feet  per  second.  The  canal  is  separated  l)y  embankments  from  the 
first  basins  it  supplies.  In  the  basins  farther  north  the  canal 
embankments  are  omitted.  Here  the  canal  is  not  a  boundary  line 
between  basins,  but  flows  through  each.  The  length  of  the  canal  is 
about  60  miles.  Just  below  its  point  of  diversion  from  the  river  an 
immense  masonr}"  head  gate  has  been  erected.  It  is  many  times  too 
large  for  the  volume  of  water  carried  by  the  canal,  and  it  Avould  look 
much  more  in  keeping  with  the  surroundings  if  the  canal  were  two  or 
three  times  larger.  The  head  gate  contains  21-1  archways,  each  of 
which  is  nearly  10  feet  wide.  The  foundation,  which  rests  upon  sand 
and  gravel  mixed  with  Nile  mud,  is  131  feet  wide  and  (Ji  feet  thick. 
The  superstructure  is  of  brick,  except  the  corners  and  other  exposed 
parts,  which  are  of  stone.  The  piers  are  6i  feet  thick,  and  are  about 
20  feet  high  from  the  foundation  to  the  springing  line  of  the  arch- 
wsLjs.  The  discharge  is  regulated  by  raising  or  lowering  flashboards 
by  means  of  a  winch  carried  on  a  car  running  along  the  top  of  the 
structure.  The  basins  filled  by  the  canal  are  emptied  at  an  escape 
not  far  from  Assiut.  Until  recently  they  were  drained  by  simply 
making  a  cut  in  the  basin  dike,  permitting  the  water  to  flow  Ixick  into 
the  Nile.  This  was  a  very  dangerous  and  destructive  practice  and  has 
been  reformed  by  the  installation  of  a  masonry  escape. 

In  the  province  of  Assiut  two  canals  divert  water  from  the  left  and 
eight  from  the  right  bank  of  the  river.  On  the  left  bank  there  are 
also  six  laterals  of  the  Ibraimia  Canal.  The  Yusef  Canal  is  now 
supplied  by  the  Ibraimia  at  the  town  of  Dirut,  5-1  miles  north  of  Assiut. 
The  Ibraimia  Canal  was  never  supplied  with  a  head  gate  until  recently, 
when  the  construction  of  the  Assiut  dam  made  it  necessary  that  the 
discharge  of  the  canal  be  controlled  at  Assiut,  where  immense  masonry 


36 

regulators  and  division  gates  have  been  put  in.  At  Dirut  there  is  a 
wasteway  in  the  canal,  through  which  the  surplus  water  can  flow  back 
into  the  Nile.  Just  below  the  wastewa}'  the  division  gates  are  located, 
and  at  this  point  the  Yusef  and  two. less  important  canals  begin.  The 
length  of  the  Ibraimia  Canal  from  Dirut  to  its  lower  terminus  is  about 
130  miles.  It  flows  almost  parallel  to  the  Nile,  and  in  no  place  is  it 
over  2  or  3  miles  from  the  river.  At  Dirut  the  width  of  the  canal  on 
the  bottom  is  about  05  feet,  and  the  slopes  of  its  banks  are  2  horizontal 
to  1  vertical.  The  depth  of  water  in  the  canal  when  full  is  about  30 
feet.  The  water  supplied  to  the  IV)raimia  Canal  at  Assiut  serves  to 
irrigate  over  1,000.000  acres  of  land.  About  600,000  acres  of  this  is 
still  irrigated  under  the  ancient  basin  system. 

The  Yusef  Canal  supplies  a  number  of  basins  along  its  course,  but 
its  principal  duty  is  to  furnish  the  Fayum  province  with  water  for 
perennial  irrigation.  The  cross-section  dimensions  of  this  canal  are 
very  irregular.  It  averages  about  175  feet  in  width  on  the  bottom  and 
has  a  depth  of  about  20  feet.  There  are  levees  on  each  side,  however, 
which  enable  it  to  carry  30  feet  of  water  at  high  Nile.  During  May 
and  June  it  carries  about  600  cubic  feet  of  water  per  second.  During 
high  Nile  the  discharge  is  about  30.O0O  cubic  feet  per  second.  Dur- 
ing low  water  summer  cultivation  is  prohibited  along  the  canal  except 
in  the  Fayum  province.  The  entrance  to  this  province  is  between  two 
desert  plateaus,  and  the  low  gap  is  closed  by  a  dike  which  completeU^ 
separates  the  province  from  the  Nile  Valley  proper.  The  Yusef  Canal 
crosses  this  dike  on  a  masonry  structure  composed  of  three  arches. 
The  Fayum  province  was  formerly  cultivated  as  the  valley  of  the  Nile 
had  always  been,  but  perennial  irrigation  is  practiced  at  the  present 
time,  owing  to  the  increased  supply  of  water  furnished  by  the  canal. 
At  the  town  of  Medinet  the  canal  separates  into  many  smaller  ditches, 
and  a  large  part  of  the  province  is  watered  by  these.  About  250,000 
acres  are  cultivated  in  the  province.  The  slope  of  the  land  in  the 
Fayum  is  greater  than  in  any  other  farming  district  of  Egypt.  All 
the  land  in  the  province  drains  into  Lake  Kerun.  which  is  13n  feet 
below  the  level  of  the  Mediterranean. 

In  the  province  of  Minieh  three  canals  divert  water  from  the  right 
bank  of  the  river.  The  three  canals  on  the  left  bank  are  laterals  of 
the  Ibraimia  Canal.  These  are  quite  important  among  the  distributing 
works  of  the  province.  In  the  province  of  Benisouef  six  canals  take 
water  from  the  left  and  two  from  the  right  bank  of  the  river.  There 
is  one  important  branch  of  the  Ibraimia  Canal  in  this  province.  In  the 
province  of  Gizeh  three  canals  take  water  from  the  left  and  one  from 
the  right  bank  of  the  river.  Below  Cairo  there  are  many  canals  (Pis. 
X  and  XXIV).  The  principal  ones  are  those  leaving  the  Nile  at  the 
barrage  and  the  Ismailia  Canal,  which  diverts  water  from  the  river  at 
Cairo. 


U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Bui.  130,  Office  of  Expt.  Stations.      Irrigation  Investigations. 


Plate  X. 


SCALE   OF  MILES 


KUM  ^SHFEr^l 


-.     •'%   1                       EL-By>KAR, 

■-*.;-%                0 

=^\'-^ 

f  -4   * 

k 

k     lf\ 

\ 

1  fY\ 

Q 

tMJ'    "^..^ 

■'^^''S^ '^\l5/,  ^^^^"^-^  3   PYRAMIDS    OF  GIZEH 


Map  of  the  Nile  Valley  from  Cairo  to  the  Delta,  Showing  the  Location  of 
THE  Barrages  and  the  Head  Works  ot-  the  Principal  Canals. 


37 

The  Ismailia  Canal  deserves  special  mention  because  it  was  con- 
structed wholly  b}^  contract  and  in  one  piece.  The  Eg^^ptian  Govern- 
ment entered  into  an  agreement^  with  the  Suez  Canal  Company  to 
construct  a  navigable  waterway  from  the  Nile  to  some  point  on  the 
Suez  Canal.  The  canal  was  not  onl}'  to  be  navigable,  but  was  to  be 
capable  of  furnishing  fresh  water  to  the  towns  along  the  main  canal  and 
the  branch  beginning  at  Ismailia  and  running  parallel  with  the  Suez 
Canal  to  the  town  of  Suez.  In  addition,  the  canal  was  to  supph^  water 
for  the  irrigation  of  a  considerable  area  ceded  by  the  government  to 
the  company.  The  contract  stipulated  that  the  canal  should  be  so  con- 
structed as  to  contain  8  feet  of  water  in  depth  during  flood  season  of 
the  Nile,  6^  feet  at  mean  discharge,  and  3i  feet  at  low  water.  The 
canal  has  two  head  gates,  the  older  one  being  in  the  city  of  Cairo.  The 
second  head  gate  is  about  4i  miles  north  of  Cairo,  from  which  point  a 
branch  canal  24  miles  long  connects  with  the  main  channel  54  miles 
northeast  of  Cairo.  For  some  distance  the  canal  runs  northeasterly 
along  the  edge  of  the  desert,  after  which  it  turns  to  the  east  through  a 
gap  in  the  desert  hills  and  continues  to  the  town  of  Ismailia.  For  some 
40  miles  from  Cairo  it  runs  above  the  level  of  the  surrounding  country, 
and  the  water  is  confined  betw^een  two  parallel  embankments.  This 
has  resulted  in  considerable  seepage,  which  has  destroyed  large  areas 
adjoining  the  canal.  Some  work  has  been  done  toward  draining  a  por- 
tion of  this  country.  Just  before  reaching  Ismailia  a  branch  of  the 
canal  takes  off  to  the  south  and  terminates  at  the  town  of  Suez.  In 
digging  the  canal  some  traces  of  an  ancient  channel  leading  in  the  same 
direction  were  discovered.  Historical  accounts  of  an  older  canal  have 
been  found.  About  6()0  B.  C. ,  King  Nekos  began  the  construction  of 
a  navigation  channel  running  between  the  east  arm  of  the  Nile  and  the 
Red  Sea.  The  channel  was  never  finished,  although  120,000  natives 
employed  upon  it  lost  their  lives  in  the  undertaking. 

The  length  of  the  Ismailia  Canal  from  Cairo  to  Lake  Timsah,  near 
the  town  of  Ismailia,  is  about  80  miles.  The  length  of  the  branch 
leading  south  from  Ismailia  to  Suez  is  about  53  miles.  The  bottom 
width  of  the  main  canal  is  about  10  feet.  The  slopes  are  3  to  1.  The  bot- 
tom width  of  the  branch  canal  leading  to  Suez  is  onh^  about  25  feet,  but 
the  channel  was  not  well  excavated  and  the  width  is  not  uniform.  In 
places  it  does  not  exceed  16  feet.  Many  important  masonr}^  struc- 
tures are  found  throughout  the  length  of  the  canal.  Swing  bridges 
are  numerous,  and  substantial  head  gates  and  regulators  are  found 
wherever  the  discharge  of  the  canal  has  to  be  changed.  Owing  to  the 
depth  to  which  the  canal  has  been  dug,  and  the  necessity  for  keeping 
it  cleaned  out  so  that  it  will  carry  sufficient  water  for  navigation  dur- 
ing low  stages  of  the  Nile,  large  quantities  of  silt  have  to  be  removed 
each  year.  Formerly  this  deposit  frequently  amounted  to  350,000 
cubic  yards  each  season.     It  has  been  reduced  to  about  160,000  cubic 


38 

yards  ])y  partiall}^  closino-  the  head  gates  of  the  main  canal  during 
high  water  and  supplj^ng  it  through  the  smaller  canal  alread}-  referred 
to,  diverting  water  4i  miles  north  of  Cairo.  Considerable  work  is 
required  each  year  at  the  head  gate  of  the  supplj^  canal.  It  is  over  a 
quarter  of  a  mile  from  the  bank  of  the  river.  The  channel  leading  to 
this  head  gate  fills  with  back  water  from  the  river  during  high  Nile 
and  immense  quantities  of  mud  are  deposited. 

Many  of  the  canals  in  the  delta  are  ancient  river  channels.  Those 
taking  water  from  the  Nile  at  the  barrage  are  artificial.  Among  these 
latter  is  the  Manufia  Canal  (frontispiece),  which  is  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  in  Egypt.  It  furnishes  water  for  the  irrigation  of  nearly 
all  the  land  in  the  delta  lying  between  the  two  branches  of  the  Nile. 
The  head  gate  of  the  canal  is  similar  in  design  to  the  barrage  itself. 
(PI.  XI,  fig.  2.)  A  lock  has  been  provided  at  the  head  gate,  and  the 
canal  furnishes  an  important  waterway  for  the  internal  commerce  of 
the  delta.  The  canal  is  from  160  to  175  feet  wide  on  the  bottom,  and 
at  high  water  carries  nearly  3<i  feet  of  water  in  depth.  Its  summer 
discharge  is  nearlv  •!.()•  >0  cubic  feet  per  second. 

The  Tewfiki  Canal  diverts  water  from  the  Damietta  branch  of  the 
Nile  at  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  barrage.  It  Avas  begun  man}^ 
years  ago,  ])ut  was  not  finished  until  after  the  occupation  b}^  the 
English.  It  furnishes  water  for  a  large  area  l3'ing  east  of  the  Dami- 
etta branch,  and  its  construction  has  added  greatly  to  the  value  of  this 
region  through  the  introduction  of  perennial  irrigation.  The  Behera 
Canal  leaves  the  Rosetta  branch  of  the  Nile  at  the  western  extremity 
of  the  ])arrage.  It  is  about  60  feet  wide  on  the  bottom,  with  slopes  of 
2  to  1.  It  runs  for  a  considerable  distance  along  the  margin  of  the 
desert,  hence  receives  large  volumes  of  sand  which,  with  the  silt 
deposited  during  high  Nile,  have  to  be  cleaned  from  the  channel  each 
year.  Until  recenth'  nearh^  1,000,000  cubic  yards  had  to  be  removed 
annually,  and,  in  spite  of  the  enormous  amount  of  work  performed, 
the  canal  carried  less  than  600  cubic  feet  of  water  per  second.  The 
Behera  Canal  is  about  25  miles  long.  *At  its  lower  extremity  the 
Katat))eh  Canal  ])egins.  It  has  about  the  same  dimensions  as  the 
Behera  Canal.  It  supplies  all  the  smaller  canals  to  the  north  and 
west.  The  surplus  water  from  the  drainage  of  the  land  it  serves  flows 
into  Lake  jVIareotis.  The  Mahmoudia  Canal  begins  34  miles  from  the 
barrage  of  the  Kosetta  branch  of  the  Nile.  This  canal  runs  for  alwut 
45  miles  to  the  northwest  and  ends  at  Alexandria.  It  supplies  fresh 
water  for  that  city  besides  furnishing  water  for  irrig-ating  a  large 
area.  The  Mahmoudia  Canal  has  for  a  long  time  been  supplied  with 
water  by  means  of  immense  pumps  located  at  Atfeh.  Since  the  repair 
of  the  barrage  the  pumps  of  Katatbeh  have  been  removed  to  Mex, 
which  station  keeps  down  the  level  of  Lake  Mareotis. 


39 

CONSTRUCTION  AND  MAINTENANCE  OF  CANALS  AND  LEVEES. 

Nearly  all  large  public  works  in  Egypt  have  l)een  constructed  by  the 
corvee  (See  p.  74.)  The  >y<teni  was  much  abused  when  the  English 
began  their  occupation  in  188:^.  As  soon  as  possible  some  relief  was 
afforded  the  corvee  by  direct  appropriations,  under  which  a  part  of 
those  employed  on  public  works  were  paid  for  their  labor  at  a  price 
tixed  by  the  government.  These  appropriations  were  increased  until 
in  1881>  all  work  of  cleaning  canals  was  paid  for.  Since  that  time  the 
corvee  has  been  called  out  only  for  the  protection  of  the  Xile  levees 
during  Hood  season,  a  period  of  from  sixty  to  ninety  days.  While  thou- 
sands of  men  are  thus  compelled  to  give  their  time  without  compensa- 
tion, it  is  for  the  public  benetit.  and  the  length  of  their  service  is  short, 
seldom  longer  than  lifteen  or  twenty  days.  But  little  complaint  is  now 
heard,  as  the  work  is  necessary  and  the  service  must  be  compulsory  to 
be  efficient.  The  time  will  doubtless  come  when  this  service  will  also 
be  paid  for. 

The  manner  in  which  the  native  digs  or  cleans  canals  is  interesting. 
His  one  tool,  which  resembles  a  hoe.  is  illustrated  in  the  accompanying 
sketch  (tig.  T).  The  engineers  measure  the  material  which  is  to  be 
removed,  and  each  man  or  party 
excavates  a  certain  section  contain- 
ing a  known  yardage.  (PI.  III). 
Frequently  a  number  of  men  will 
work  tooether.  one  usino-  a  hoe  and 
the  others  carrving  baskets  holding 

,         .11,.  *!•,.,        ,.  1  ^if^-  "■— Hoe  used  bv  native  farmer. 

about   halt  a  cubic  foot  ot  earth. 

The  earth  i>  loosened  and  the  ))askets  tilled  b}'  the  use  of  the  hoe. 
Where  dry  sand  is  encountered  the  hands  are  usetl  to  tiil  these  baskets. 
Children  are  often  seen  carrying  the  baskets,  but  the  hoe  is  nearlv 
always  handled  by  the  men.  Under  this  method  of  excavation  canal 
sections  are  made  smoother  and  more  regular  than  under  the  methods 
commonly  employed  in  the  United  States.  Steps  of  earth  are  left  in 
the  banks,  enabling  those  carrying  material  to  walk  with  considerable 
ea-e.  On  the  smaller  canals  and  laterals  the  earth  is  often  loosened 
with  the  hoe  and  thrown  out  by  hand.  Sometimes  it  is  necessary  to 
clean  these  when  a  foot  or  more  of  water  is  standing  in  them,  in 
which  case  the  luaterial.  if  plastic,  can  be  easily  handled.  Where  the 
banks  are  higher,  the  earth  may  l)e  thrown  by  a  man  in  the  bottom  of 
the  ditch  to  another  on  the  bank,  and  hy  him  pitched  out. 

Near  ^Nledinet  el  Fayum  a  photograph  was  secured  of  a  number  of 
natives  cleaning  a  small  ditch.  (PI.  IX.  tig.  i>.)  The  soil  was  a  black 
loam,  thoroughly  saturated  with  water.  The  men  loosened  the  mate- 
rial with  their  hoes  where  necessary  and  removed  it  l>y  hand.  The 
material  was  sufficiently  pla>tic  so  that  each  handful  retained  its  form 


after  being  deposited.  After  a  day  or  so  in  the  sun  these  become  dry 
and  hard  and  are  of  no  value  in  the  bank  of  the  ditch.  On  an  average 
one  man  can  excavate  about  3  cubic  yards  of  earth  a  day  if  the  lift  be 
not  too  great.  For  this  service  he  is  paid  about  15  cents,  which  admits 
of  the  cleaning  of  a  canal  at  the  rate  of  5  cents  per  cubic  3^ard.  This 
is  the  cheapest  method  of  performing  the  work  under  Egvptian  con- 
ditions. It  costs  about  15  cents  per  cubic  yard  to  clean  a  canal  with  a 
steam  dredge,  owing  to  the  higher  price  of  labor  necessary  to  run  the 
machine  and  to  the  cost  of  coal.  The  large  canals  are  usually  cleaned 
after  the  water  has  been  drained  out  and  they  have  dried.  When  it  is 
impossible  to  drain  them  completeh^  the  unpleasant  features  of  the 
work  are  greath'  increased. 

WATER-RAISING  DEVICES. 

As  has  been  before  stated,  most  of  the  water  for  irrigation,  except 
in  that  portion  of  Egypt  which  still  retains  the  ancient  basin  system, 
flows  below  the  level  of  the  land  to  be  irrigated,  the  necessary  lift 
var34ng  with  the  stage  of  the  river.  The  native  machiner}-  for  lifting 
water  has  been  designed  to  work  regardless  of  this  fluctuation.  While 
none  of  this  machinery  is  eiBcient,  it  serves  for  the  irrigation  of  a  large 
area.  The  shaduf  and  the  sakiyeh  are  used  when  the  fluctuation  is 
great  or  where  the  lift  is  over  5  or  6  feet.  Both  are  of  ancient  origin. 
They  can  be  applied  to  almost  any  lift,  are  easy  to  construct,  and  do 
not  require  many  repairs. 

But  little  is  known  regarding  the  lifting  machines  used  by  the  ancient 
Egyptians.  Probably  the  first  devices  invented  by  them  were  much 
more  primitive  and  not  as  efficient  as  those  used  to-day.  Many  of 
these  machines  have  become  obsolete  because  it  was  found  that  the}" 
did  not  have  as  wide  a  range  of  application  as  have  the  devices  now 
generally  employed.  It  ma}"  be  that  the  scarcity  of  the  matei'ial  from 
which  the  lifting  devices  were  built  has  largely  afiected  the  change  in 
design. 

THE  SHADUF. 

The  shaduf  consists  essentially  of  two  vertical  supports  about  5 
feet  apart  connected  by  a  horizontal  crosspiece  some  5  feet  from  the 
ground,  a  pole  hung  on  this  crosspiece  like  a  well  sweep,  and  a  bucket 
suspended  from  this  pole.  In  many  places  the  uprights  supporting 
the  crosspiece  are  made  of  small  sheaves  of  cornstalks  stiffened  with  a 
coat  of  Nile  mud.  Sometimes  the  m  iid  is  used  alone.  The  pole  is  hung 
6  inches  beneath  this  crosspiece,  as  shown  in  PI.  XII.  This  pole  is 
not  balanced,  but  is  supplied  with  a  counterweight  on  the  shorter  end, 
which  extends  away  from  the  water.  Suspended  from  the  other  end 
is  a  long  pole  to  which  a  bucket  is  attached.  This  bucket  is  usually 
made  of  leather  stiffened  near  the  top  by  a  wooden  hoop.     Its  capacity 


U    S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Bui.  130,  Office  of  Expt.  Stations.      Irrigation  Investigations. 


Plate  XI. 


Fig.  1.— Lateral  Head  Gate. 


Fig.  2.— Head  Gate  of  Manufia  Canal. 


U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  B 


ul.  130,  Office  of  Expt.  Stations.     Irrigation  Investigations. 


PLATE   All. 


« 


/.'i'"" 


The  Shaduf. 


41 

is  approximateh'  2^  gallons,  or  one-third  of  a  cubic  foot.  The  eounter- 
weight  is  generally  a  piece  of  sun-dried  Nile  mud  held  together  with 
straw,  cornstalks,  or  sugar-cane  leaves.  The  woodwork  is  generalh^ 
rough  and  the  whole  structure  shows  a  lack  of  neatness.  The  operator 
throws  his  weight  on  the  sweep,  the  bucket  tills,  and  the  counterweight 
raises  it  to  the  channel  into  which  it  is  to  be  poured.  The  ground 
where  the  water  falls  is  protected  from  erosion  by  a  matting  of  vege- 
table fiber.  A  single  shaduf  can  lift  water  only  5  or  tj  feet,  but  it  is  the 
custom  to  install  them  in  series  of  three  or  four,  which  work  together, 
raising  the  water  from  20  to  30  feet.  A  number  of  shadufs  so  oper- 
ated need  not  necessarih'  he  in  a  line.  It  is  quite  connnon  to  tind  the 
lower  shaduf  50  or  even  luO  feet  up  or  down  stream  from  the  others, 
but  it  is  better  to  get  them  as  close  together  as  possible,  to  reduce  the 
loss  by  seepage. 

A  shaduf  operated  by  one  person  can  raise  about  3  cubic  feet  of 
water  per  minute.  A  man  usually  works  two  hours  at  a  time,  and 
two  men  relieving  each  other  put  in  about  ten  hours  a  day.  rhe^' 
can,  therefore,  with  one  machine,  raise  1,8(m)  cubic  feet  of  water  per 
day.  Assuming  that  at  each  irrigation  the  land  is  covered  to  a  depth 
of  1  inch,  a  device  of  this  kind  would  irrigate  about  half  an  acre  a  day. 
The  following  table  shows  the  efficiency  of  a  number  of  shadufs  on 
which  data  were  obtained: 

Efficiencii  of  the  shaduf  a--^  <i  miter-ramng  device. 


Height  of  lift. 


Number 
of  sha- 
dufs in 
series. 


T-n^t!w    lAreairri-   Cost  per  |  i    .,^,     . 

mSS&  i^n^i-  -''^  ■'';2¥.-?''   fltKrri. 


per  day  of 
ten  hours. 


2.8  leet  . . 
3.3  feet  . . 
3.3  feet  . . 

3.9  feet  . . 
4.2  feet  . . 

5.7  feet  . . 

5.8  feet . . 
9.1  feet  . . 
10.4  feet  . 
15.8  feet  . 

19.3  feet  . 

19.4  feet  . 

21.5  feet  . 
22  feet . . . 
29  feet . . . 
29  feet . . . 


;0.30 
.32  1 
.30 
.30 
.29 
.30 
.30  1 
.35  1 
.66  ' 
.65  I 
.60  j 
.95  ] 
.86  j 
.90  ! 
1.23  I 
1.39 


ten 
hours. 


irriga- 
tion. 


per  day. 


0.21 

81.43 

.17 

1.88 

.19 

1.58 

.19 

1.58 

.15 

1.93  ! 

.18 

1.67  ' 

.12 

2.50 

.12 

2.92  , 

.10 

6.60  1 

.10 

6.50  i 

.09 

6.67  1 

.10 

9.50  ! 

.08 

10.75 

.08 

11.25 

.08 

15.37 

.08 

17.37 

0.06 
.06 
.07 
.05 
.05 
.06 
,04 


gated. 


Cost  per 

acre  lor 

each  foot 

of  lift. 


Acre-font.       Acrt!>. 


0.98 
1.21 
1.48 
1.40 
.91 
1.15 
1.13 


.05 

1.09 

.03 

1.01 

.03 

.96 

.03 

.96 

.03 

.81 

.03 

1.02 

.03 

.85 

.03 

.03 

.SO 

80.51 
.57 
.48 
.41 
.46 
.29 
.43 
.32 
.63 
.41 
.34 
.49 
.50 
.51 
.53 
.60 


THE  SAKIYEH. 

The  sakiyeh  is  as  common  as  the  shaduf.  It  is  estimated  that  tnere 
are  12,0oo  of  them  in  <^hat  pait  of  the  delta  between  the  branches  of 
the  Nile.  There  are  probably  5n,»)0o  altogether  in  Egypt.  The 
machine  is  constructed  as  follows:  A  horizontal  wooden  wheel  about 
10  feet  in  diameter,  furnished  with  cogs  projecting  about  8  inches  from 
its  circumference,  is  supported  on  a  vertical  shaft,  the  lower  end  of 


42 

which  is  pointed  and  rests  on  a  wooden  bearing.  The  upper  end  of 
this  shaft  is  generally  of  small  diameter  and  is  thrust  through  a  hole 
in  a  horizontal  beam  22  or  23  feet  long  and  supported  at  its  ends  by 
columns  of  sun-dried  bricks  or  masonry.  Sometimes  wooden  posts 
or  even  two  small  pieces  of  wood  crossed  and  tied  together  are  substi- 
tuted for  these  columns.  Projecting  radially  fi'om  the  horizontal 
wheel  is  an  arm  to  which  is  hitched  the  animal  furnishing  the  power. 
The  teeth  on  the  horizontal  Avheel  engage  similar  teeth  on  a  vertical 
wheel,  the  shaft  of  which  passes  underground  to  a  second  vertical 
wheel  over  the  water  to  be  lifted.  The  details  of  this  wheel  and  the 
earthen  jars  it  carries  are  shown  in  the  accompanying  illustration  (PL 
XIII.  lig.  1).  Where  the  lift  exceeds  half  the  diameter  of  the  wheel 
the  jars  are  attached  to  a  belt  which  passes  around  a  small  wheel  in  the 
water  or  simply  hangs  by  its  own  weight.  Sometimes  the  sakiyeh  is 
built  on  a  masonr}^  foundation.  The  shaft  of  the  horizontal  wheel 
then  has  a  stone  bearing  and  the  beam  supporting  the  shaft  rests  on 
the  masonry  walls.  While  the  wooden  parts  have  to  ))e  replaced  quite 
often,  the  masonry  work  is  practically  permanent. 

An  ox  or  a  buffalo  is  usually  employed  to  work  the  machine.  Each 
animal  is  relieved  every  three  hours  and  generally  works  two  periods 
per  day.  Sometimes  two  animals  are  driven  together.  This  is  common 
when  a  double  belt,  furnished  with  jars  quite  close  together,  is  used, 
or  where  the  lift  is  very  high.  In  the  Faj'um  the  sakiyehs  are  often 
turned  by  the  current  of  the  canals.  In  the  delta  the  vertical  wheel 
carrying  the  jars  is  frequently  replaced  by  one  having  small  compart- 
ments built  in  its  circumference.  The  jars  ordinarily  used  on  a  saki3xh 
weigh  about  2i  pounds  each  and  hold  about  half  a  gallon.  A  sakijreh 
will  raise  from  120  to  180  cubic  feet  of  water  per  hour,  depending  upon 
the  height  of  the  lift.  The  eflSciency  of  the  device  is  reduced  by  its 
lifting  the  water  higher  than  necessary  b}^  about  a  third  of  the  diameter 
of  the  wheel.  It  has  been  estimated  that  one  sakiyeh  will  do  the  work 
of  four  shadufs.     This  is  approximate  and  is  doubtless  too  high. 

A  number  of  improvements  have  been  made  in  these  machines 
recently  and  the}^  are  now  manufactured  by  British  firms  and  imported 
into  Egypt.  Being  constructed  of  iron,  the  tirst  cost  is  often  prohibi- 
tive, repairs  are  difficult,  and  it  is  not  easy  to  install  them  where  the 
sites  have  been  designed  for  larger  saki3^ehs. 

The  cost  of  operating  a  sakiyeh,  using  one  animal  at  a  time,  is  about 
$1.50  per  acre  each  irrrigation,  for  lifts  not  exceeding  12  feet.  From 
12  to  18  feet  the  cost  will  prol)abh'  reach  $2.40  per  acre,  and  from  20 
to  30  feet,  $3.6()  per  acre.  If  the  animals  used  are  owned  by  the  irri- 
gator, the  cost  will  be  considerabh'  reduced.  The  sakiyeh  itself  may 
cost  all  the  wa}'  from  810  to  Si 50,  depending  upon  the  location,  the 
cost  of  the  material  of  which  it  is  constructed,  the  price  of  lah)or,  and 
whether  or  not  masonry  is  used  in  the  walls  and  foundation.  The  fol- 
lowing table  has  been  prepared  from  notes  taken  in  the  field: 


43 


Efficiertni  of  the  mJcbjeh  as  a  vater-raising  denre. 


Height  of  lift. 

Number 

of 
animals 
working 
two  or 
two  and  a 
half  hour 
periods. 

Cost  of 
running 
machines 
per  day  of 
ten  hours. 

Area 

irrigated 

in  ten 

hours. 

Cost  per 
acre  each 
irriga- 
tion. 

Discharge 
per  day. 

Area  of 
field  irri- 
gated. 

Cost  per 

acre  for 

each  foot 

of  lift. 

3  feet   .                  

2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 

$0.60 
.60 
.63 
.58 
.51 
,69 

Acre. 
0.74 
.66 
.66 
.78 
.65 
.65 
.64 

:% 

.47 

.49 

SO.  80 
.90 
.95 
.74 
.80 

1.06 
.94 

1.00 
.74 

1.74 

2.14 

Acre-foot. 
0.24 
.23 
.24 
.21 
.21 
.20 
.23 
.26 
.20 
.17 
.16 

Acres. 
10.3 
8.6 
8 

9.4 
7.3 
7.6 

6.1 

n 

SO.  27 

5  feet        

.18 

5.50  feet 

.17 

6  feet                       

.12 

7.75  feet 

8  75  feet 

.10 
.12 

10  feet 

2 

V     .60 

.09 

12  50  feet 

2                  .57 

2  ;               .49 

3  .82 

4  1.05 

.08 

16  feet                        

.05 

19  feet 

.09 

5  feet                         

4.8                 .09 

THE   ARCHIMEDEAN    SCREW. 

In  the  delta  a  number  of  unusual  methods  are  employed  for  raising 
water  from  1  to  tt  or  5  feet.  One  of  the  most  strikino-  of  these,  and 
one  the  least  to  be  expected  in  Egypt,  is  the  Archimedean  screw. 
Around  an  iron  shaft  some  Itt  or  15  feet  long  is  built  a  screw,  made 
up  of  thin  pieces  of  wood  so  fitted  together  as  to  be  practically  water- 
tio-ht.  A  water-tio'ht  wooden  cylinder  is  constructed  around  the  screw. 
The  diameter  of  the  cylinder  is  ordinarily  about  14  inches,  and  its 
length  does  not  often  exceed  8  or  9  feet.  The  pitch  of  the  screw  is 
about  1  revolution  to  1^  diameters.  The  screw  is  so  attached  that  it 
will  not  revolve  on  the  shaft.  The  shaft  projects  from  Iwth  ends  of 
the  cylinder  and  is  supported  near  its  extremities  by  posts.  The 
screw  inclines  30  degrees  or  less  to  the  horizon,  with  its  lower  end  in 
the  water.  To  the  upper  end  of  the  shaft  a  crank  is  attached.  This 
lifting  device  is  shown  in  the  accompanying  illustration.  (PI.  XIV.) 
One  or  two  men  usually  operate  a  screw,  but  in  rare  cases,  when  the 
screw  is  especially  large  or  the  lift  consideral)le.  a  small  eng'ine  is 
employed.  High  lifts  are  practically  impossible  on  account  of  the 
difficulty  of  supporting  a  screw  of  great  length.  This  device  is  more 
efficient  than  the  lifting  machines  contrived  by  the  natives.  One  man 
can  irrigate  from  1  to  2  acres  a  day  with  this  machine,  provided  the 
lift  be  not  over  2  feet.  The  efficiency  of  the  Archimedean  screw  is 
shown  in  the  following  table: 

Erficitiicii  of  the  Archimedean  screw  oji  a  imter-raisinq  device. 


Height  of  lift. 

Number 
of  men 

working 
periods 
of  two 
hours. 

Cost  of 
operation 
per  day  ot 
ten  hours 

Area 

irrigated 

in  ten 

hours. 

Cost  per 
acre  each 
irriga- 
tion. 

Discharge 
per  day. 

3.3feet 

2 
2 
2 

I 

SO.  31 
.27 
.27 
29 

Acres. 
1.22 
1.12 
1.36 
1  no 

SO.  25 
.24 
.20 

28 
■'6 

Acre-foot. 

0.47 

.49 

:1 

4]^ 

Acres.    ; 

14.2            80.08 
10.8                 .05 
10                    .04 
6.4                 .06 
11.7                 .04 

4.5  feet.. 

4.6  feet 

5.1  feet 

5.9  feet 

30             11-1 

44 


THE    NATALI. 


In  the  delta  a  great  deal  of  water  is  raised  by  means  of  another 
curious  device,  known  as  a  natali.  Two  men  operate  a  bucket  to 
which  is  attached  four  cords.  These  cords  are  held  by  the  men  and 
the  bucket  is  alternately  tilled  and  emptied  with  remarkable  dexterity. 
PL  XV  shows  this  device  in  use.  But  little  preliminary  construction 
is  needed  before  the  work  of  raising  water  can  be  commenced.  A 
channel  is  generally  dug  from  the  water  into  the  bank  of  the  canal 
and  platforms  are  made  for  the  men  to  stand  on.  Where  the  water  is 
poured  into  the  ditch  leading  to  the  fields  the  bank  is  protected,  as  in 
the  case  of  shadufs,  by  a  matting  of  vegetable  fiber.  Two  men  can 
raise  about  100  cubic  feet  of  water  per  hour  to  a  height  of  3  or  4  feet. 
The  accompanying  ta>)le  gives  some  information  relative  to  the 
efficiencv  of  this  contrivance: 

Efficlencif  of  tlie  natali  as  a  ivater-raising  device . 


Height  of  lift. 


0. 7  foot 
0. 8  foot 

1. 0  foot 

1.5  feet 

1.6  feet 
1.9  feet 

2. 1  feet 
2. 3  feet 

2. 7  feet 

2. 8  feet 


Number 
of  men 

working 
periods 
of  two 
hours. 


Cost  of 
operation 
per  day  of 
ten  hours. 


Area  ir-     Cost  per  I  .  ,  Cost  per 

rigated    acre  each  I  Discharge  '  «pi,?  jrri  ^^^^  ^^^ 

in  ten    ,    irriga-    \    per  day.        l^^r^A  '  each  foot 
hours.    \     tion.      |                         g.neii.        ^f  nft. 


Acre. 

®0.  28 

0.94 

$0.30 

.30 

.98 

.31 

.28 

.88 

.32 

.30 

.66 

.45 

.30 

.51 

.60 

.46 

.78 

.60 

.31 

.65 

.48 

■     .58 

.64 

.90 

.65 

.71 

.91 

.54 

.70 

.77 

Acre-fool. 
0.27 
.26 
.26 
.21 
.21 
.24 
.20 
.22 
.20 
.20 


6 

SO.  43 

6 

.39 

7.2 

.32 

6.6 

.     .30 

5.1 

.38 

5.4 

.32 

6.3 

.23 

•i.l 

.40 

0 

.34 

4.6 

.27 

PUMPING. 

Small  pumping  plants  are  becoming  common  and  some  expensive 
and  well-equipped  pumping  stations  have  been  erected  in  various  parts 
of  Egypt.  The  design  most  commonly  met  wnth  is  an  8-inch  centrif- 
ugal pump  propelled  ])y  an  8-horsepower  steam  engine.  Coal  is 
usually  burned  in  these  engines,  although  cornstalks  and  straw  are 
substituted  for  it  in  Upper  Egypt.  Coal  costs  $7  per  ton  at  Alexan- 
dria, the  price  increasing  with  the  distance  from  that  port. 

As  early  as  1882  there  w^ere  2,645  pumps  and  engines  lifting  w^ater 
from  the  Nile  and  from  canals.  The  engines  had  a  total  horsepower 
of  29,453.  Of  the  plants  2,226  were  movable  and  419  were  stationary. 
The  stationary  engines  had  a  total  horsepower  of  9,382,  while  the 
movable  engines  had  a  horsepower  of  20,071.  Nearly  all  of  these 
pumping  plants  were  located  in  the  deltii.  although  there  were  a  num- 
ber between  Cairo  and  Assiut.  Above  that  there  were  no  movable 
plants  and  only  17  stationary  engines  and  pumps.  The  number  has 
not  increased  appreciably  since  that  time,  but  modern  pumps  have, 


U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr  ,  Bui.  130,  Office  of  Expt.  Stations.     Irrigation  Investigations. 


Plate  XIII. 


Fig.  1.— Sakiyehs. 


Fig.  2.— a  Steam  Pump  on  a  Scow. 


U.  S    DeDt.  of  Agr.,  B.     '  30    0*''ce  c'  Exot.  Stations.      Irrigation  Investigations. 


Plate  XIV. 


U    S.  Dept   of  Agr.,  Bui.  130.  Office  o'  Exot.  Stations.      Irrigation  Investigations 


Plate  XV. 


45 

in  many  cases,  been  substituted  for  those  originally  employed.  Pump- 
ing plants  are  frequently  seen  on  scows  on  the  river.  (Fl.  XIII.  tig.  2.) 
These  go  from  place  to  place  and  furnish  water  under  contract. 
Where  the  lift  is  not  over  8  or  10  feet  and  where  the  owner  of  the 
field  is  a  part  owner  in  the  plant,  steam  pumps  furnish  water  at  about 
|il.90  per  acre  for  each  irrigation.  If  the  farmer  is  not  interested  in 
the  plant  the  cost  per  acre  may  run  as  high  as  ^3.75  or  'Si  for  each  irri- 
gation. Cotton  has  to  be  watered  four  or  live  times  during  the  grow- 
ing season.  AA'heat.  maize,  and  all  fodder  crops  are  generally  twice 
irrigated.  Figures  quoted  by  engineers  as  to  the  cost  of  pumping 
water  vary  greatly.  The  outky  for  this  service  depends  largely  upon 
the  local  practice  of  the  irrigator.  Mr.  Thorwald  L.  Smith,  agricul- 
turist of  the  Societe  du  Behera.  which  controls  a  considerable  area  in 
the  delta,  has  furnished  the  following  information  regarding  the  char- 
acter of  the  pumps  employed  by  the  society,  together  with  their  dis- 
charge, the  quantity  and  cost  of  coal  consumed,  etc.  The  pumps 
employed  are  either  of  English  or  French  manufacture,  and  are  not 
superior  in  any  way  to  those  made  in  the  United  States,  A  detailed 
description  of  them  is  therefore  unnecessary. 

Efficiency  of  pvmjAng  plants  ovned  hri  the  Socuii  du  Bi'hera,  Alexandria. (f 

Expense  of  operation  per  day  of  ten     Total  cost  per 
,  hours.  "  day. 

Description  of  centrifugal  pump  '  Discharge 


and  engine.  per  second.  Coal.  ^  Lubri-     Engineer     ^  r^      , 

cants  and       and  ^^^^      l^^el^ 


Pounds. 


Cost.    I  sundries,  fireman. 


e 
hours,    hours. 


45 


50.1s 

?i.2;s 

.18 

1.23 

.18 

1.23 

.18 

1.23 

.18 

1.23 

8.13 


.i.4.5  .18  1.23  6.83  '         8.13 


20-inch  direct-acting  compound 
condensing  Gwynne  pump 17.66  1.212       S-'i.  45  50.1s  51.23       S6. 83 

20-inch  Ruston  and  Proctor,  driven 
by  belt  Irom  semiportable  com- 
pound condensing  engine  by 
same  makers ". . 

18-inch  Dumont  pump,  driven  by 
belt  from  a  Ruston-Proctor  com- 
pound condensing  portable 

16-inch  Ruston-Proctor  pump, 
driven  by  belt  from  compound 
condensilig  portable  by  same 
makers 

12-inch  Gwynne  pump,  driven  by  ! 
belt  froni  single  cylinder  non-  '  .  I  j 

condensing  portable 6.70  662  '      2.98  .18  1.23        4.86  5.83 

a  Tests  running  from  1B95-1901:  lift.  6.5  feet.  b  Coal  at  88.94  per  ton. 

DUTY  OF  WATER. 

Some  tests  have  been  made  in  V)oth  Upper  and  Lower  Egypt  to  deter- 
mine the  duty  of  water.  The  lack  of  careful  measurements  of  the 
water  supplied  for  irrigation  discredits  many  reports  which  would 
otherwise  be  valuable.  The  rated  capacity  of  the  pumps  is  too  often 
used  in  computing  the  volume  of  water  furnished.  When  gaugings 
are  made  to  check  the  pumps,  it  is  generally  found  that  the  discharge 
has  been  overestimated.     The  water  is  usuallv  measured  on  the  border 


46 

of  the  field,  so  that  })ut  little  loss  occurs  between  the  pump  and  the 
irrigated  hind.  In  lower  Egypt  it  has  been  found  that  a  depth  of 
water  of  ^.55  feet  is  sufficient  for  the  irrigation  of  cotton.  A  depth  of 
4.3  feet  is  required  for  rice.  The  winter  crops,  which  have  ah-eady 
been  enumerated,  demand  from  1.6  to  2  feet.  Although  the  growing 
season  of  sugar  cane,  the  most  valuable  crop  in  upper  Egypt,  covers  a 
period  of  nine  months,  a  depth  of  Avater  of  2.5  feet  suffices  for  its 
needs. 

The  following  discussion  of  the  duty  of  water  under  some  of  the 
pumping-  plants  of  the  Societe  du  Behera.  in  Lower  Egypt,  has  been 
furnished  by  Mr.  Thorwald  L.  Smith: 

*  *  *  The  loss  through  evaporati(jii  and  absorption  varies  greatly  according  to 
the  following  conditions: 

(1)  Quality  of  soil:   (a)  Sandy;  (b)  medium;   (c)  heavy. 

(2)  Time  of  year:  (a)  Hot;  (b)  cold. 

(3)  Number  of  days  elapsed  since  last  watering. 

(4)  Distance  of  field  from  pump:  (a)  Water  carried  in  old  permanent  channel;  (b) 
carried  in  temporary  channel  for  that  particular  crop. 

As  to  the  first,  we  find  that  in  (a)  sandy  soil  (pure  alluvial  deposits)  the  quantity 
of  water  required  for  each  watering  is  about  double  that  wanted  for  heavy  (c).  On 
the  other  hand,  such  soil  cracks  less,  and,  consequently,  there  is  not  so  much  loss, 
should  the  time  between  two  waterings  be  prolonged,  as  there  is  in  heavy  soil  where, 
after  a  long  drought  in  summer,  the  cracks  (unless  the  land  be  frequently  hoed) 
will  continue  to  absorb  all  the  water  for  some  minutes  and  will  conduct  it  to  the  sub- 
soil, which  is  salt,  where  it  can  be  of  little  use  to  the  surface-feeding  crops. 

Second.  Time  of  year  makes  a  difference  in  two  ways:  First,  because  in  summer  a 
lot  of  water  is  lost  by  evaporation  so  soon  as  it  is  spread  in  a  thin  layer  over  the 
baked  land,  and  second,  because  in  the  cooler  months  the  canals  are  all  generally 
running  full  and  consequently  all  low  lands  can  be  irrigated  by  gravitation  and  are 
more  or  less  water-logged,  especially  where  drainage  is  bad.  In  fact,  for  winter  crops 
the  only  time  when  pumps  are  used  for  such  lands  is  when  the  upper  reaches  of  the 
canals  have  been  closed  for  clearance  and  the  water  in  the  lower  reaches  falls  below 
the  ground  level. 

Third.  The  number  of  days  between  each  watering  for  cotton  should  be  an  aver- 
age of  fifteen,  but  through  want  of  water  this  is  frequently  prolonged  to  thirty  or  even 
more.  Naturally  from  causes  mentioned  above,  i.  e.,  cracking,  and  from  the  fact 
that  evaporation  directly  and  through  the  plants  has  been  going  on  continually,  the 
land  takes  more  water  to  show  any  sign  on  the  surface.  For  the  rice  crop  these  last 
conditions  can  not  obtain,  for  water  must  be  changed  in  rice  fields  while  the  crop  is 
young  at  least  every  four  days,  and  when  stronger  at  a  maximum  of  eight  days  on 
good  soil.  (Where  the  land  is  very  salt  the  crop  would" suffer  very  much,  if  not  die, 
in  an  eight-day  interval. )  On  the  other  hand,  as  the  rice  land  is  continually  wet 
the  absorption  at  the  time  of  watering  is  much  less,  and  of  course  there  are  no  cracks. 
However,  as  the  water  is  on  the  surface  there  is  great  evaporation  from  sun  and  wind, 
especially  so  long  as  the  plant  is  small  and  does  not  shade  its  own  roots. 

In  calculating  (theoretically)  the  amount  of  water  necessary  for  each  watering, 
about  3.94  inches  in  depth  would  appear  to  be  sufficient.  Indeed,  in  the  case  of 
cotton  which  is  sown  on  ridges,  one  might  think  that  the  area  of  the  furrows  only, 
into  which  the  water  runs,  i.  e.,  about  half  the  total  area,  would  be  the  figure  on 
which  to  base  the  quantity  necessary.  But  the  ridges,  being  made  up  entirely  of 
loose  soil,  soak  up  water  at  once,  especially  the  first  watering  or  after  a  hoeing,  and 


47 

carry  almost  as  much  as  a  furrow.  I  may  say  at  once  that  the  3.94  inches  over  the 
whole  area  for  cotton,  even  when  the  ground  is  not  much  cracked,  is  quite  insufficient, 
and  in  a  long  furrow  that  quantity  would  not  reach  the  end.  Of  course,  to  equalize 
the  supply  to  each  plant  the  field  is  divided  longitudinally  into  narrow  belts  and 
these  belts  crossways  into  short  beds.  This  division  is  made  after  the  field  has 
been  prepared  and  ridged  up,  the  original  ridges  stretching  from  one  end  of  the 
field  to  the  other.  Between  each  belt  is  a  small  water  channel,  which  is  what  I 
refer  to  in  4  (b).  In  these  channels  a  good  deal  of  water  must  be  wasted.  As  to 
the  permanent  waterways  we  calculate  a  mean  loss  of  10  per  cent  for  absorption 
and  evaporation.     *    *    * 

THE  CAIRO  BARRAGE. 

In  1798  and  1799,  during  the  French  occupation,  Xapoleon  called 
attention  to  the  advisability  of  constructing  dams  across  the  Rosetta 
and  Damietta  branches  of  the  Nile.  Perennial  irrigation  had  probably 
not  occurred  to  him,  but  he  saw  the  advantage  of  being  able  to  turn 
the  whole  discharge  of  the  river  down  one  branch  or  the  other  so  that 
the  lands  along  either  might  receive  the  benefit  of  the  entire  flow. 
The  dam  would  probably  not  have  been  built  had  this  been  its  only 
function,  but  his  suggestion  may  have  led  Mohammed  Ali  to  intro- 
duce perennial  irrigation  in  Lower  Egypt. 

In  1833  Mohammed  Ali  favored  building  a  .^tone  dam  across  the 
Rosetta  Branch  so  that  it  might  be  entirely  closed.  This  would  raise 
the  level  of  the  water  considerably  at  the  site  of  the  dam  and  afford  a 
better  supply  to  the  canals  taking  water  from  the  Damietta  Branch, 
along  which  was  the  larger  irrigated  area.  Before  work  was  begun 
he  was  persuaded  to  change  his  plans.  It  was  suggested  to  him  that 
in  place  of  building  a  dam  across  the  Rosetta  Branch  one  be  erected 
on  each  branch  6  miles  below  their  point  of  divergence.  The  khedive 
approved  this  plan  and  ordered  that  the  stone  be  taken  from  the  Pyra- 
mids. All  protests  against  this  latter  scheme  were  without  avail  until 
Linant  Pasha,  a  government  engineer,  showed  that,  as  the  Pyramids 
were  built  from  the  bottom  to  the  top.  they  would  have  to  be  dis- 
mantled from  top  to  ])Ottom.  and  that  the  stone  thus  procured  would 
be  more  expensive  than  if  taken  from  new  quarries  opened  near  Cairo. 
Everything  seemed  now  to  promise  .speedy  completion  of  the  dam. 
Workshops  were  erected  and  some  material  for  construction  had  been 
delivered  on  the  ground,  when  ^lohammed  Ali  again  changed  his 
mind  and  stopped  the  work.  Nothing  more  was  heard  of  the  barrage 
project  until  1812.  when  Mougel  Be}',  a  French  engineer,  was  called 
to  Egypt  and  his  plans,  as  altered  by  the  khedive  so  as  to  include  the 
fortifications,  led  to  the  construction  of  the  barrage  as  it  stands  to-da}'. 
The  dam  was  finally  completed  in  1861  at  a  cost  of  89,000.000.  not 
counting  the  services  of  the  corvee.  The  additional  cost  of  fortifica- 
tions, canal  head  gates,  and  incidentals  made  the  total  outlay  about 
^19.000.000. 

After  this  vast  expenditure  the  dam  was  of  no  value  except  as  a 


48 

highway  across  the  Nile.  Only  the  Rosetta  Branch  of  the  barrage  was 
supplied  with  gates.  The  additional  head  produced  by  closing  these 
caused  enough  pressure  to  crack  the  masonry  of  the  dam.  At  the 
same  time  water  ran  under  the  structure  and  a  number  of  springs 
appeared  below.  During  the  reign  of  Ismail  Pasha  nothing  was  done 
toward  repairing  the  ))arrage.  Suggestions  that  it  might  be  put  in 
condition  to  hold  back  water  for  the  irrigation  of  lower  Eg3'pt  were 
never  considered  seriously. 

The  barrage  is  shown  in  the  accompanying  illustrations  (Pis.  XVI 
and  XVII).  The  Rosetta  dam  has  61  archways,  while  the  Damietta 
Branch  has  71.  The  height  of  the  archways  is  -11.82  feet  from  the  floor 
of  the  structure  to  the  crown  of  the  arch,  or  32.  S  feet  to  the  spring  line 
of  the  arches.  The  archways  are  16.4  feet  wide,  and  the  piers  support- 
ing them  are  6.56  feet  thick.  The  original  foundation  of  the  dam  was 
simply  a  layer  of  concrete  111  feet  wide  and  nearly  9  feet  thick,  cov- 
ered by  a  stone  and  brick  floor  1.61:  feet  thick.  As  work  on  each 
section  was  undertaken,  sheet  piling  was  driven  to  keep  the  water 
quiet  while  the  concrete  was  being  laid.  The  piers  were  constructed 
on  this  floor.  Locks  were  built  at  both  ends  of  each  dam  and  at  the 
head  gates  of  the  three  canals.  The  flow  of  water  through  the  sluice- 
ways was  to  have  been  regulated  by  gates  of  a  new  design,  but  they 
never  proved  satisfactory,  although  a  few  still  remained  in  the  dam 
until  1890.  The  gates  now  used  close  tightly,  but  a  grating,  through 
which  the  water  flows  at  all  times,  is  beneath  the  sills  on  which  the 
gates  rest. 

Since  the  English  have  been  in  control  of  Egypt  repairs  to  the  barrage 
have  been  going  on  almost  constantly.  A  new  floor  was  laid,  widening 
the  foundation  30  feet  on  the  downstream  and  78  feet  on  the  upstream 
side.  It  was  thought  better  to  widen  rather  than  deepen  the  founda- 
tion, because  the  material  did  not  improve  with  depth.  After  this 
work  was  completed  new  gates  were  put  in  the  dam  throughout. 
These  were  made  of  wrought  iron  and  provided  with  rollers,  and  they 
slide  in  cast-iron  grooves  made  fast  to  the  piers.  The  gates  are  lifted 
by  a  traveling  winch.  One  rail  for  supporting  the  car  carrving  the 
lifting  device  was  put  on  the  upstream  parapet  of  the  dam.  Brick 
towers  were  built  on  the  piers  to  support  the  second  rail.  These 
towers,  with  the  gates  now  employed,  are  shown  in  PI.  XVII. 

Until  1896  the  springs  on  the  downstream  side  of  the  dam  continued 
to  flow.  Some  water  came  through  the  gratings,  but  a  large  volume 
flowed  under  the  piers.  In  1896  repairs  were  begun  which  will  doubt- 
less make  the  barrage  an  enduring  structure.  Through  holes  5  inches 
in  diameter,  drilled  from  top  to  bottom  of  the  piers  and  lined  with 
iron  pipes,  clav  or  cement  mortar  was  ranmied.  It  was  found  in  this 
work  that  large  cavities  existed  under  the  foundation,  and  as  much  as 
40  barrels  of  cement  were  used  for  a  single  pier.     The  total  cost  of 


U.  S   Dept.  of  Agr.,  Bui.  130,  Office  of  Expt.  Stations.     Irrigation  investigations 


Plate  XVI. 


Fig.  1.— The  Damietta  Barrage  from  Eastern  Bank  of  the  Nile. 


Fig.  2.— PiOSEtta  Barrage  from  Western  Bank  of  the  Nile. 


U.  S    Dept.  of  Agr.,  Bui.  130,  Office  of  Expt.  Stations.      Irrigation  Investigations. 


Plate  XVII. 


49 

these  repairs  amounted  to  $3uO,UOO.  Another  safeguard  has  been 
added  to  the  barrage.  Across  each  branch  of  the  Nile  below  the  l)ar- 
rage  low  dams  have  been  built,  raising  the  surface  of  the  water  there 
and  correspondingly  reducing  the  pressure  to  which  the  larger  works 
are  subjected. 

The  Egyptian  Government  had  many  times  prior  to  1882  discussed 
the  matter  of  repairing  the  liarrage.  At  one  time  a  scheme  was  on 
foot  whereby  it  was  thought  that  an  expenditure  of  86.200,000  would 
make  the  structure  serviceable.  Luckily,  the  Arabic  custom  of  not 
making  repairs  prevailed  in  this  instance.  Another  scheme  which 
received  the  attention  of  the  government  was  to  pump  water  into  the 
canals  instead  of  relying  on  the  barrage  at  all.  This  would  have 
necessitated  an  expenditure  of  nearly  83.500,000  for  the  establishment 
of  the  pumping  plant,  and  an  annual  outlay  of  about  Sl.25(>.<>00  to 
keep  it  in  operation.  The  government  actually  made  a  contract  with 
a  company  to  pump  water  into  one  of  the  canals  during  low  water, 
and  bound  itself  to  pay  at  least  8128,000  a  year  for  this  service.  So 
successful,  however,  were  the  engineers  in  repairing  the  dam  that  by 
1892  the  canals  heading  there  were  fully  supplied.  The  l)arrage  fur- 
nishes water  at  a  much  less  cost  than  a  pumping  plant,  and.  as  the 
flow  is  regulated  during  the  season  of  high  water  as  well  as  at  other 
times,  a  great  reduction  is  made  in  the  volume  of  silt  which  has  to 
be  removed  from  the  canals  each  year.  However,  until  after  the 
occupation  of  the  English,  labor  had  but  little  value,  and  this  item 
was  probably  not  taken  into  consideration. 

As  early  as  1884  the  barrage  performed  some  beneticial  service  for 
the  irrigators  of  the  delta.  The  alterations  which  tirst  put  the  dam  in 
working  order  cost  about  82,25U.0OO.  One  hundred  and  tifty  thousand 
dollars  are  requir^^d  each  year  for  maintenance  and  operation.  While 
the  repairs  were  being  carried  on.  the  Tewtiki  Canal,  taken  out  at  the 
eastern  end  of  the  Damietta  branch  of  the  barrage,  was  completed. 
Many  auxiliary  canals  and  ditches  were  dug  and  considerable  reform 
was  brought  about  in  the  drainage  system  throughout  the  delta. 

RESERVOIRS. 

The  construction  of  reservoirs  is  a  new  departure  on  the  part  of  the 
Egyptian  Government.  Storing  water  at  Assuan  during  the  winter 
for  the  benefit  of  the  irrigjitor  during  the  months  of  scarcity  will 
necessitate  changes  in  the  irrigation  systems  now  existing  if  the  sup- 
ply thu>  made  available  is  to  be  distributed  to  the  best  advantage. 
The  water  supply  atiorded  by  the  Nile  is  such  that  storage  works  can 
be  extended  almost  indetinitely.  or  until  all  of  the  aral)le  land  of  Egypt 
is  served  by  perennial  irrigation. 

The  total  area  of  Egypt  proper,  embracing  the  great  Ly  t)ian  Desert. 
27752— No.  130—03 1 


50 

which  contains  tive  oase.s  and  a  large  part  of  the  Sinai  Peninsula,  is 
about  390,000  square  miles.  Of  this  less  than  3  per  cent,  or  about 
6,0()o,(X)0  acres,  can  ever  be  cultivated.  The  accompanying  map  (PI. 
XVIII)  enables  a  comparison  to  be  made  of  the  Nile' Valley  with  that 
of  the  Platte  River.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  mouths  of  the  Platte 
and  the  Damietta  branch  of  the  Nile  are  coincident.  The  two  rivers 
cross  the  north  boundar}^  of  Colorado  near  the  same  point,  and  Denver 
and  Assuan  lie  onh^  a  few  miles  apart.  Eg3'pt  proper,  therefore,  has 
about  the  same  length  as  the  Platte  Valle^^  from  Denver  to  the  Mis- 
souri River.  The  width  of  the  Platte  Valley  in  Nebraska  is  about  the 
same  as  that  of  the  Nile  from  Assuan  to  Cairo.  Only  5,145.000  acres 
are  now  cultivated  in  the  valley  of  the  Nile.  A  similar  area  of  agri- 
cultural land  in  Nebraska  would  have  produced  in  1900  crops  having 
a  total  value  of  about  $26,000,0()0.  The  farming  lands  of  Egypt  pay 
more  than  this  in  taxes  each  year.  Nebraska  received  in  1900  a  little 
over  §6,000,000  from  all  its  sources  of  revenue.  Egypt  received  about 
^60,000,000.  Nebraska  has  no  bonded  inde])tedness  and  but  a  small 
floating  debt.  Egypt  has  a  complication  of  financial  troubles,  owing 
in  the  aggregate  8516,000,000,  or  8100  for  each  acre  of  agricultural 
land. 

But  little  arable  land  in  Upper  Eg^^pt  remains-  unreclaimed,  and  the 
area  enjoying  perennial  irrigation  can  not  be  extended  until  reservoirs 
are  provided  to  store  the  water  which  is  needed  in  May  and  June. 
With  the  growth  of  the  reservoir  svstem  basin  irrigation  will  disap- 
pear. There  are  now  120  of  these  basins  in  Upper  Egypt,  varying  in 
size  from  500  to  35,00(>  acres.  Each  year  many  of  these  basins  fail  to 
receive  the  volume  of  water  needed  and  the  yield  of  the  crops  is  cor- 
respondingly reduced.  Taxes  on  such  land  have  to  be  remitted,  entail- 
ing a  loss  to  the  treasury  of  §220.000  annually.  Although  the  basin 
S3'stem  has  been  greatly  improved  during  the  past  twenty  years,  3^et 
so  evident  are  the  advantages  of  perennial  irrigation  that  the  demand 
for  reservoirs  has  been  growing.  In  Lower  Egypt  1,300,000  acres  can 
be  reclaimed  when  water  for  irrigation  is  made  available.  According 
to  a  rough  determination  of  the  duty  of  water,  made  In'  engineers,  it 
will  require  33,00(1  cubic  feet  per  second,  or  75,1:00  acre-feet  per  day, 
to  irrigate  this  land. 

The  mean  discharge  of  the  Nile  for  January  is  about  140,000  acre- 
feet  per  day.  Eor  February  it  is  about  104,000,  and  for  March  it  is 
73,000  acre-feet  per  day,  in  this  month  falling  below  the  volume  which 
will  be  needed  when  all  the  irrigable  land  in  Egypt  is  brought  under 
cultivation.  In  April  and  June  the  mean  discharge  per  day  is  about 
51,000  acre-feet.  In  May  it  falls  as  low  as  44,500  acre-feet  per  day. 
The  mean  discharge  in  acre-feet  per  day  for  July  is  182,000.  While 
some  shortag-e  mav  occur  verv  earlv  in  this  month,  vet  it  is  not  one  of 


51 


the  critical  months.     During  the  remainder  of  the  year  the  river  always 
furnishes  more  water  than  is  needed. 

Mean  discharge  of  the  Xile,  187 S- 1892. 


Month. 

Acre-feet. 

Month. 

Acre-feet. 

4, 192, 650 
3,115,728 
2,210,858 
1,538,460 
1,335,114 
1,538,460 
5, 484, 600 

17, 684, 568 

September 

October 

20, 620, 106 

March                             

19, 650, 906 

April 

November  •. . 

December      

9,  329, 760 

Mav 

5,  899, 014 

Junf 

Total 

July 

92.601,224 

The  reservoir  system  would,  during  average  3'ears,  have  to  supply 
126,000  acre-feet  in  March,  799,000  acre-feet  in  April,  1,002,000  acre- 
feet  in  May,  799,000  acre-feet  in  June,  and  probably  120,000  acre-feet 
during  the  first  few  days  of  July.  The  reservoirs  would  have  to  store 
a  total  volume  of  2,852,000  acre-feet  in  order  to  furnish  water  for  the 
irrigation  of  this  land.  Even  in  low-water  3^ears  the  Nile  supplies 
plenty  of  water  to  fill  a  reservoir  system  of  much  larger  capacit\\  If 
the  reservoir  S3^stem  could  be  made  large  enough  to  maintain  a  uniform 
flow  in  the  river  throughout  the  year,  it  would  at  all  times  discharge 
about  257,230  acre-feet  per  day,  or  about  130,000  cubic  feet  per  second. 
The  Nile  furnishes  an  average  volume  of  92,600,000  acre-feet  annuall3^ 
Disregardinglosses  in  storage  and  transit,  it  is  estimated  that  27.521,000 
acre-feet  of  water  would  irrigate  all  of  the  agricultural  land.  Under 
this  assumption  the  land  would  be  covered  to  a  depth  of  1.27  feet. 
This  would  leave  65,200,000  acre-feet  of  water  unused  when  Egypt 
was  fully  supplied.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  building  of  the  Assuan 
reservoir,  with  an  estimated  capacity  of  863,100  acre-feet,  is  only  the 
first  step  in  the  construction  of  storage  works.  The  Wady  R^^an  site 
alone  could  probably-  store  about  3,()00,000  acre-feet,  enough  water  to 
supplv  Egypt,  but  it  could  be  used  only  in  Lower  Egypt;  but  the  nat- 
ural flow  of  the  Nile  furnishes  more  water  than  is  needed  for  Upper 
Egypt.  If  this  site  were  improved,  the  Assuan  reservoir  would  not 
be  needed;  hence,  it  will  very  likeh'  be  the  policy  of  the  government 
to  build  a  number  of  storage  works  similar  to  the  Assuan  reservoir 
farther  up  the  river.  That  the  expense  of  maintaining  these  and  the 
difficulty  of  controlling  the  discharge  of  water  from  them  will  be  much 
greater  than  for  one  large  reservoir,  can  not  be  doubted. 

If  reservoir.s  are  constructed  farther  up  the  Nile,  they  must  be 
farther  from  Egyi)tian  territory,  and  consequently  more  difficult  to 
control.  Much  discussion  has  occurred  as  to  the  feasibility  of  utilizing 
lakes  Victoria  and  Albert  in  central  Africa  as  reservoirs.  But  little 
has  been  done  toward  making  surveys  in  that  locality  and  no  figures 
are  available  as  to  the  cost  of  converting  the  lakes  into  storage  works. 


52 


THE  ASSUAN  RESERVOIR. 


The  engineers  of  the  Eg\^ptian  Government  have  realized  for  a  long 
time  that  it  would  be  necessar}^  to  store  some  of  the  Nile  water  before 
Upper  Eg3'pt  could  receive  the  benefits  of  perennial  irrigation  or  a 
large  area  of  Lower  Egypt  l^e  reclaimed.  For  ten  years  before  work 
was  undertaken  toward  Iniilding  the  reservoir  preliminary  surveys 
were  made  and  many  reservoir  sites  were  discussed.  Investigators 
resorted  to  ancient  history  and  In'ought  forth  all  the  known  facts 
regarding  Lake  Moeris,  which  occupied  part  of  the  basin  now  known 
as  the  Fayum  province.  One  American  engineer,  who  had  studied 
this  subject  and  made  some  surveys,  held  that  the  AVady  Ryan  was 
formerly  Lake  Moeris.  Whether  or  not  this  ])e  true  does  rot  matter 
at  this  time.  To-day  it  is  the  only  practicable  reservoir  site  between 
the  Mediterranean  and  Assuan.     (See  PI.  XIX.) 

Early  in  1894.  after  considerable  discussion  as  to  how  reservoir  con- 
struction should  be  carried  on  and  what  sites  should  be  utilized,  a 
technical  commission  was  appointed.  This  commission  consisted  of 
Sir  Benjamin  Baker,  an  Englishman;  Auguste  Boule,  a  Frenchman, 
and  Giacomo  Torricelli,  an  Italian.  They  left  Cairo  February  26, 
and  returned  March  23,  having  examined  all  the  sites  in  less  than  a 
month.  The  Wad}^  Ryan  and  a  number  of  Nile  valle}^  reservoirs  were 
discussed,  the  majority  of  the  commission  finally  agreeing  upon  the 
Assuan  site. 

The  Nile,  from  the  town  of  Assuan  to  the  dam  site,  is  broken  into 
many  irregular  channels.  The  bed  and  banks  of  the  river  are  largel}^ 
composed  of  granite.  The  iirst  cataract  of  the  Nile  begins  where  the 
water  first  encounters  the  granite.  Engineers  agreed  that  the  dam 
should  be  ])uilt  in  this  locality,  but  as  to  its  exact  line  there  was  a 
great  deal  of  discussion.  Mr.  Willcocks  recommended  that  it  be  of 
irregular  alignment,  running  from  one  island  to  another,  where  his 
studies  indicated  that  the  granite  was  solid,  thus  affording  a  good 
foundation:  ])ut  the  dam  as  finally  built  is  straight,  and  crosses  the 
river  where  rapids  first  appear.  It  was  originallv  planned  to  make 
the  dam  100  feet  high,  but  when  it  was  found  that  a  dam  of  this 
height  would  cause  the  submersion  of  the  temples  on  the  island  of  Philae 
it  was  determined,  in  view  of  the  protests  of  those  interested  in  the 
preservation  of  these  ruins,  to  reduce  the  height  30  feet,  although  it 
is  possible  that  it  may  still  be  raised  to  100  feet.  This  would  give  the 
reservoir  a  storage  capacity  two  or  three  times  greater  than  it  now 
has,  while  the  ratio  between  the  cost  of  the  work  and  the  volume  of 
water  impounded  would  be  greatly  reduced.     (Pis.  XX  and  XXI.) 

The  dam  is  70  feet  high,  6,400  feet  long,  23  feet  wide  on  top,  and 
82  feet  wide  on  the  bottom  at  the  deepest  part.  It  contains  approxi- 
mately 1,000,000  cubic  yards  of  masonry.     The  depth  of  water  at  the 


U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Bui.  130,  Office  of  Expt.  Stations.     Irrigation  Investigations.  PLATE   XVIII. 


Map  Comparing  the  Nile  Valley  with  that  of  the  Platte  River. 


U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  B'j\.  130.  Office  cf  Exot    Stations       Irrigation  Investigation; 


Plate  XIX. 


^^^^N^r^ 


SCALE  IN  FEET 


Map  Showing  the  Assuan  Dam  Across  the  Nile. 


U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Bui,  130    Office  c'  Exot.  Stations.     Irr'gation  Investigations. 


Plate  XX. 


U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr..  Bu'    130,  Office  of  Expt.  Stations.      Irrigation  Investigations. 


Plate  XXI, 


53 

dam  will  be  (35.6  feet  when  the  reservoir  is  full.  The  cross  section  of 
the  dam  shown  herewith  (tio-.  8)  needs  hut  little  explanation.  The 
roadway  runnin*^  along  the  top  of  that  portion  of  the  dam  containing 
sluiceways  is  HIA  feet  wide.  A  large  part  of  the  eastern  end  of  the 
dam,  containing  no  sluiceways,  is  narrower,  and  the  roadway  there  is 


Fig.  8.— Cross  section  of  Assuan  (iam. 

reduced  to  9.8  feet.  The  rul)l)lc  masonry  of  the  body  of  the  dam  is 
laid  in  4  to  1  cement  mortar,  and  the  downstream  slope  is  faced  with 
squared  rubble  laid  in  the  same  mortar  and  pointed  in  2  to  1  cement 
mortar.  The  upstream  slope,  being  submerged  a  large  part  of  the 
year,  i.-^  faced  with  scpiared  rubble  laid  in  2  to  1  cement  mortar  and 
pointed  in  the  same.     The  batir  of  the  lower  slope  of  the  dam  is  1  to  1^. 


54 

Buttresses  3.75  feet  thick  and  26  feet  wide  are  located  between  each 
set  of  H>  shiiceways.  or  about  240  feet  apart.  The  buttresses  were 
added  rather  for  the  sake  of  appearance  than  to  increase  the  strength 
of  the  wall.  The  four  locks  at  the  western  end  of  the  dam  are  each 
260  feet,  long-  und  31  feet  wide.  They  will  enable  small  boats  to  pass 
at  nearly  an}'  time  during-  the  3-ear. 


-Details  of  apparatus  for  raisins;-  gates 


nan  dam 


There  are  180  sluiceAvays  throuoh  the  dam.  Of  these  65  have  been 
placed  with  their  sills  practically  on  a  level  with  the  bed  of  the  river. 
Forty  of  these  low  sluiceways  are  lined  with  cast  iron  (PI.  XXII.  tig.  1), 
all  others  being  lined  with  ashlar  masonry.  The  cast  iron  is  not  con- 
sidered as  durable  as  the  granite,  but  by  employing  it  the  work  was 
much  hastened,  so  that  the  sluicewavs  commenced  at  the  end  of  one 


55 

high-water  season  could  be  tinished  before  the  flood  again  appeared. 
Seventy-live  shiiceAvays  have  their  sills  11.  Tt>  feet  above  the  bed  of  the 
river.  Of  the  latter  25  are  supplied  with  roller  gates  and  the  remaih- 
ing  50  have  simply  sliding  gates,  to  be  operated  onh'  when  the  head  of 
water  against  them  is  small.  Eighteen  sluiceways  have  been  placed 
27. SS  feet  and  22  sluiceways  41  feet  above  the  bed  of  the  river.  All 
of  the  sluiceways  except  the  upper  1:0  are  6.56  feet  wide  and  22.1>6 
feet  high.  The  upper  sluiceways  have  the  same  width  but  are  only 
one-half  as  high.  The  rollers  lie  between  paths  on  the  gates  and  paths 
fastened  to  the  masonry  of  the  dam.  The  gates  themselves  are  built 
up  of  steel  plates,  stiffened  by  rolled  steel  joists,  which  in  turn  are 
bolted  to  the  cast-iron  roller  path  beams.  The  following  description 
of  the  gates  and  gearing  for  raising  them  has  })een  furnished  by 
Kansomes  &  Rapier.  Limited,  the  manufacturers: 

The  gates  are  siij^pended  Ijv  steel-wire  ropes  passing  around  pulleys  so  as  to  give 
10  parts  of  rope.  The  two  ends  of  the  rope  are  wound  upon  a  crab  barrel  placed  at 
the"  side  of  the  roadway  at  the  top  of  the  dam.  The  era!)  gear  is  such  that  one  man 
can  operate  each  gate  with  the  full  head  of  water  against  it,  the  gate  not  l)eing  in 
any  way  counterbalanced.     (Fig.  9.) 

Cast-iron  grooves  are  built  into  the  dam  in  order  to  provide  the  necessary  space 
for  the  gates  to  work  in.  These  are  cast  in  sections  and  bolted  together  in  place.  A 
cast-iron  sill  piece  and  a  cast-iron  lintel  form  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  sluiceway 
opening.  An  arched  roof  casting  supports  the  masonry  over  the  entrance  to  the 
culvert  in  front  of  the  sluiceway. 

Owing  to  the  cutting  nature  of  the  silt  in  the  Nile  water,  it  has  been  thought  advis- 
al^le  to  provide  stanching  rods  on  each  side  of  the  gate  and  also  in  the  lintel  casting. 
These  rods  Avill  make  the  gates  practically  water-tight  when  shut  down. 

In  the  case  of  the  50  sluiceways  14.76  feet  above  the  bed  of  the  river,  which  are 
without  rollei'S,  the  gates  slide  against  the  planed  faces  of  the  groove  castings  and 
are  made  water-tight  against  the  faces,  and  also  on  the  sill  when  the  gates  are  com- 
pletely lowered.  The  top  is  rendered  water-tight  by  an  adjustable  bar  bolted  to  the 
gate  which  lowers  onto  a  projection  from  the  lintel  when  the  gate  is  in  its  final 
position. 

The  location  of  the  sluiceways  on  the  high  level  will  permit  the 
water  of  the  reservoir  to  be  controlled  without  its  being  necessary'  to 
manipulate  the  other  gates,  which  will  withstand  a  pressure  of  300 
tons  when  the  reservoir  is  full.  Toward  the  1st  of  December  of  each 
year  the  lowest  65  and  the  50  ordinary  gates  14.76  feet  above  will  he 
closed.  The  reservoir  will  immediately  begin  to  fill,  and  the  "26  sluice- 
wavs  furnished  witn  Stonev  gates  will  be  slowlv  closed  as  the  discharo-e 
of  the  Nile  warrants.  It  is  hoped  that  in  this  way  the  reservoir  may 
be  entirely  tilled  without  appreciably  aft'ecting  the  flow  of  the  river. 
The  upper  gates  will  be  the  last  to  be  closed  while  the  reservoir  is 
filling  and  the  first  to  be  opened  when  the  water  is  turned  back  into 
the  Nile  in  May.  The  sluiceways  furnished  with  Stonev  gates  will 
next  be  gradually  opened,  and  all  the  gates  Avill  be  raised  by  the 
middle  of  eluly,  when  high  water  appears.     The}'  will  remain  open 


56 

until  the  flood  has  practically  disappearea  and  comparatively  clear 
water  again  flows  in  the  Nile. 

Work  on  the  foundation  and  lower  parts  of  the  dam  had  to  be  prose- 
cuted during  low  Nile.  The  numerous  channels  into  which  the  river 
is  divided  at  the  head  of  the  first  cataract  favored  this  work.  Tempo- 
rary dams  thrown  across  one  channel  turned  the  water  into  others, 
and,  by  thus  changing  about,  each  part  of  the  foundation  was  com- 
pleted and  put  in  shape  so  that  the  next  flood  could  pass  over  it  Avith- 
out  injur3^  Along  the  west  margin  of  the  river  immediately  above 
the  dam  it  was  found  necessary  to  resort  to  riprapping,  as  the  mate- 
rial is  rather  fine  and  the  current  sets  in  against  that  bank  during 
high  water.  The  greatest  difficulty  in  the  construction  of  the  dam 
was  to  find  stable  material  upon  which  to  place  the  foundation.  In 
one  of  the  channels  the  partU^  decomposed  granite  had  to  be  excavated 
to  a  depth  of  60  feet  below  the  bed  of  the  river  (PI.  XXII,  lig.  2),  mak- 
ing the  total  height  of  the  dam  at  this  point  over  120  feet.  The 
neighboring  country  supplied  a  fine  quality  of  granite  in  unlimited 
quantities.  The  Egyptian  Railwa}^  connects  directly  with  steamers  at 
Alexandria,  and  cement  was  delivered  at  Shellal,  within  2  miles  of  the 
dam  site.  The  contractor  built  light  railway's  from  the  dam  to  Shellal 
and  to  the  quarries.  In  this  way  the  stone,  cement,  and  other  sup- 
plies were  brought  to  the  point  where  needed  and  were  lifted  direct 
from  the  cars  to  their  final  positions  in  the  dam.  The  rubble  masonry 
stone  of  which  the  interior  of  the  dam  is  composed  was  carried  up 
inclined  planes  b}'  natives  to  the  masons.  The  cement  mortar  for 
this  work  was  mixed  alongside  the  dam  and  handled  in  the  same  man- 
ner. The  large  dimension  stone  of  which  the  face  of  the  dam  is  con- 
structed was  cut  at  the  quarry  and  shipped  as  needed.  The  edges  of 
the  stone  were  protected  b}-  wooden  frames,  and  other  precautions 
were  taken  to  keep  the  corners  true  while  the  heavy  blocks  were  being 
handled. 

The  first  cost  of  the  dam  was  $9,710,000,  which,  with  interest,  will 
be  paid  in  60  semiannual  installments  of  $382,815.31  each,  the  first 
payment  to  be  due  July  1, 1903.  This  makes  the  final  cost  of  the  dam, 
including  interest,  $22,970,718.60.  The  cost  of  the  work,  not  includ- 
ing the  purchase  of  land  which  the  reservoir  covers  or  the  repairs 
made  to  the  temples  of  Philae,  amounts  to  $11.26  per  acre-foot  of 
capacity.  The  ultimate  cost  to  the  people  of  Egypt,  including  inter- 
est charges,  will  be  $26.56  per  acre-foot.  Egypt  has  also  raised 
$5,716,600  for  improving  canal  systems,  especially  those  of  Upper 
Egypt,  so  that  the  water  supplied  by  the  reservoir  may  be  distributed. 

As  the  water  stored  by  the  reservoir  could  not  serve  all  the  land 
which  might  be  reclaimed  in  Egypt,  it  was  decided  to  furnish  water 
to  the  areas  already  under  cultivation  but  which  sufi'er  from  drought 
during  the  months  of  scarcity.     That  part  of  the  valley  lying  between 


U    S   Dept.  of  Agr.,  Bu!.  130,  Otf'ce  of  Expt.  Stations       Irrigation  Ir.i^estigations 


Plate  XXII. 


Fig.  1.— Cast-iron  Lining  for  Sluiceways  Being  Put  in  Place  at  the  Assuan  Dam. 


Fig.  2.— Deep  Foundation  Work  Near  Western  End  of  Assuan  Dam. 


57 

Assuan  and  Assiut  was  allotted  137,800  acre-feet.  The  lands  between 
Assiut  and  Cairo  were  allotted  482,-1:00  acre-feet.  Gizeh  province 
alone,  near  Cairo,  was  allotted  68,90<)  acre-feet.  The  territory-  north 
of  Cairo,  principally  in  the  delta,  was  allotted  243,200  acre-feet.  The 
sum  of  these  tigures  is  863,400  acre-feet,  the  estimated  capacity  of  the 
reservoir. 

The  engineers  have  estimated  that  about  T0,0()0  acres  can  be  irri- 
gated from  the  reservoir  between  Assuan  and  Assiut.  giving  this  area 
about  2  feet  in  depth,  the  water  being  measured  in  the  reservoir  and 
no  allowance  made  for  loss  either  through  evaporation  or  seepage. 
One  authority  states  that  only  one-third  of  the  land  is  cultivated  in 
any  one  season,  which  allows  210,000  acres  to  be  served.  It  is 
extremely  doubtful  if  over  70,000  acres  can  be  served  in  this  portion 
of  Egypt  during  the  three  seasons  of  the  year.  If  this  area  can  be 
changed  from  flood  to  perennial  irrigation  the  annual  vield  of  the  land 
will  be  increased  at  least  §700,000.  If  210,000  acres  could  be  brought 
under  perennial  irrigation  in  this  part  of  Upper  Egypt,  it  would  mean 
an  increase  in  the  returns  to  the  farmer  of  about  §2, lUO. <><►()  and  in 
the  revenue  of  the  state  of  about  §60,000  per  year. 

The  engineers  hope  to  bring  under  perennial  irrig-ation  458,000  acres 
of  land  lying  between  Assiut  and  Cairo.  This  would  make  an  annual 
increase  in  the  returns  to  the  farmer  of  about  §5,70o,000  and  in  the 
revenue  of  the  government  of  about  §950,000.  It  is  estimated  that 
160,000  acres  can  be  brought  under  perennial  irrigation  in  Gizeh 
province  alone,  3'ielding  an  annual  increase  in  agricultural  products  of 
nearly  §1,000,000  and  about  §300,000  to  the  government.  By  the 
perennial  irrigation  of  120,00( »  acres  in  the  delta  it  is  hoped  to  increase 
the  annual  returns  from  agriculture  there  by  about  §3,000,000  and 
the  revenue  through  taxation  b}'  about  §400,000. 

In  addition  to  the  direct  benefits  from  the  reservoir,  it  is  estimated 
that  an  average  of  §1,000,000  will  be  saved  each  3^ear  on  the  cotton 
crop.  One  year  in  live  the  Nile  is  so  low  that  about  §5,000,000  is  lost 
by  a  failure  of  a  portion  of  this  crop.  Besides  this,  about  §5,000,000 
will  ultimately  be  realized  from  the  sale  of  government  land  brought 
under  perennial  irrigation.  It  is  believed  that  the  water  stored  in  the 
Assuan  reservoir  will  add  annually  to  the  wealth  of  the  country  a  total 
of  §11,000,000.  Land  which  can  be  perennially  irrigated  rents  about 
§5  per  acre  higher  than  that  which  depends  upon  inundation  alone. 
As  shown  above,  the  taxes  on  perennially  irrigated  land  are  much 
higher  than  on  land  not  so  watered.  It  is  expected  that  the  semian- 
nual payments  on  the  reservoir  will  be  met  by  the  increased  revenue 
from  the  lands  deriving  benefit  from  the  stored  water.  In  the  words 
of  Sir  Alfred  ^lilner,  "The  Eg3'ptian  Government  is  relieved  from 
the  difficulty  of  paying  for  the  works  until  return  is  received  from 
them:  until,  in  other  words,  they  pay  for  themselves." 


58 

There  is  no  doubt  but  that  hind  Aalues  have  increased  greatl}'  since 
the  construction  of  the  reservoir  began,  and  abuost  any  irrigation 
project  in  Upper  or  Lower  Egypt  has  no  trouble  in  securing  financial 
backing.  This  demand  for  farming  land  and  the  increasing  number 
of  capitalists  interested  in  Egyptian  agriculture  led  to  a  number  of 
inquiries  regarding  the  actual  capacity  of  the  reservoir.  Engineers 
were  detailed  from  foreign  countries  to  visit  the  site  of  the  reservoir 
and  obtain  figures  to  satisfy  capitalists  that  the  reservoir  would  accom- 
plish what  it  was  advertised  to  do.  In  this  way,  and  through  the 
annual  reports  of  the  government  engineers,  the  Assuan  dam  has 
probably  l)ecome  better  known  throughout  the  world  than  an}'  other 
work  of  equal  importance.  However,  outside  of  the  surveys  in  the 
immediate  vicinit}'  of  the  site  of  the  dam,  little  has  been  done  to  deter- 
mine the  actual  capacity  of  the  reservoir.  A  surve}'  was  begun 
during  the  winter  of  1901-2  to  establish  the  boundary  line  of  the 
reservoir  when  full. 

THE  ASSIXJT  DAM. 

The  dam  at  Assiut  was  constructed  for  the  purpose  of  raising  the 
level  of  the  water  so  that  it  would  flow  into  large  canals  supplying 
water  to  land  on  the  west  side  of  the  river.  But  one  canal  leaves  the 
river  at  the  dam.  At  Dirut.  a  few  miles  below  Assiut,  a  waste  way 
has  been  built  and  a  number  of  masonry  regulators  have  been  provided. 
At  this  place  another  channel  comes  in  from  the  river.  This  latter 
channel  is  used  only  during  high  Nile.  A  number  of  divisions  of  the 
Ibraimia  Canal  at  Dirut  furnish  water  for  the  only  perennial  irriga- 
tion in  Upper  Egypt  until  the  Assuan  reservoir  shall  have  l)ecome 
available.  The  most  important  canals  below  the  regulators  are  the 
Ibraimia,  running  parallel  with  the  Nile,  and  the  Yusef,  which  parallels 
the  Ibraimia  for  a  distance,  and  ends  in  the  Fayum  province. 

The  Assiut  dam  resembles  the  barrage  below  Cairo  somewhat,  and, 
like  the  barrage,  is  founded  upon  soft  material,  which  necessitated  a 
very  broad  foundation.  The  general  character  of  the  dam  is  shown  in 
PI.  XXIII.  Its  total  length  is  2,640  feet  or  about  half  a  mile.  The 
height  of  the  roadway  above  the  bed  of  the  river  is  41. 5  feet.  The  piers 
supporting  the  roadway  are  6.56  feet  thick.  Every  ninth  pier  is  13.1 
feet  thick.  The  sluiceways  are  16.5  feet  wide.  The  depth  to  which 
water  will  flow  through  the  archways  during  high  Nile  is  33.5  feet. 
Two  gates,  each  7. 8  feet  high,  were  provided  for  each  sluiceway.  When 
these  ai-e  in  position  they  are  capable  of  increasing  the  depth  of  water 
about  10  feet.  The  gates  are  raised  by  a  traveling  winch  which  can  be 
moved  to  any  point  along  the  dam.  It  is  the  supposition  that  the 
gates  will  not  need  to  be  lowered  until  the  latter  part  of  April  each 
year,  and  the}  will  be  raised  before  the  appearance  of  high  water  in 
Julv.     Durincr  high  Nile  all  sediment  which  may  have  collected  above 


59 

the  dam  between  April  and  July  will  be  washed  away.  A  lock  has 
been  provided  at  the  western  end  of  the  dam. 

This  design  has  proved  to  be  the  best  for  dams  where  the  material 
on  which  the  foundation  rests  is  not  solid.  It  would  doubtless  give 
good  service  in  the  Platte,  Arkansas,  and  other  American  rivers  where 
the  beds  of  the  streams  are  similar  to  that  of  the  Kile  north  of  Assuan. 

The  Assiut  dam  cost  Si. 986. 630.  The  stone  was  transported  from 
quarries  farther  up  the  river  and  the  cement  and  ironwork  were  brought 
from  England.  The  Ibraimia  Canal  head  gate,  located  on  the  west 
side  of  the  river  just  upstream  of  the  dam,  cost  ^370,000.  It  is  of  the 
same  general  type  as  the  dam  except  that  it  is  provided  with  gates 
which  are  designed  to  withstand  the  flood  water.  As  reservoir  con- 
struction progresses  on  the  upper  reaches  of  the  Nile,  dams  similar  to 
the  one  just  completed  at  Assiut  will  have  to  be  erected  wherever  large 
canals  are  taken  from  the  river. 

DRAINAGE. 

In  Egypt,  as  elsewhere,  irrigation  and  drainage  go  together.  The 
Nile  and  the  canals  deposit  material  along  their  courses,  and,  after 
running  in  one  channel  for  a  long  period,  this  deposit  raises  the  chan- 
nel above  the  level  of  the  surrounding  country.  The  water  ultimately 
overflows  their  banks  and  runs  across  the  low  adjacent  country,  making 
for  itself  shorter  routes  to  the  sea.  This  change  in  channels  has  taken 
place  many  times  since  Egyptian  history  was  first  recorded. 

The  delta  is  almost  entirely  separated  from  the  sea  by  lakes  Avhich 
are  supplied  1)y  rainfall,  by  water  escaping  from  the  river,  by  water 
from  the  canals,  and  ])y  drainage  from  the  fields.  The  boundar}^ 
between  these  lakes  and  the  sea  is  maintained  by  wave  action  of  the 
Mediterranean.  The  process  of  draining  them  would  ])e  compara- 
tively simple  were  it  not  that  in  some  cases  their  ^;urfaces  are  below  sea 
level.  Before  perennial  irrigation  was  generally  extended  throughout 
the  delta,  evaporation  alone  kept  down  the  lovel  of  these  lakes  and 
thoy  did  not  injure  the  bordering  farming  lands.  Many  drains  had 
been  dug,  however,  by  the  earlier  irrigators.  During  the  periods 
when  Egypt  was  occupied  ])y  Turks,  Arabians,  and  others,  who  paid 
but  little  attention  to  the  condition  of  the  farming-  class  or  to  the  suc- 
cess of  agriculture,  many  drains  Avere  abandoned,  while  others  were 
used  as  canals.  Large  areas,  once  good  farming  lands,  reverted  to 
salt  marshes.  It  is  with  great  difiiculty  that  this  land  is  ])eing 
reclaimed  at  the  present  time.  Into  such  a  state  of  disorder  had 
things  drifted  when  the  English  took  charge  in  1882  that  many  of 
these  early  drains  were  used  for  canals  and  canals  for  drains.  Many 
thousand  acres  which  had  previous!}'  ])een  agricultural  land  reverted 
to  the  original  swampy  condition.     These  are  being  slowly  reclaimed. 


60 

Immense  pumping  plants  have  been  installed  to  remove  the  water 
from  the  surface,  and  drains  hav^e  been  dug.  The  surface  of  the 
ground  is  pulverized  before  fresh  water  is  applied.  After  the  water 
has  dissolved  some  of  the  salts  it  is  allowed  to  flow  away.  That  which 
is  rJ)sorbed  by  the  soil  reaches  the  drains  and  runs  away  Ijy  gravity  or 
is  lifted  b}^  pumps.  This  is  an  expensive  and  tedious  process,  but  as 
soon  as  a  portion  of  the  salts  are  removed  rice  can  be  grown,  and  by 
careful  use  of  the  water  the  land  continues  to  improve  in  qualit3\ 
Much  land  has  Vjeen  thus  treated  and  is  now  growing  cotton  and  the 
more  valuable  crops  of  Egypt. 

Since  the  occupation  of  the  English  S5,0UU,00U  or  'S6JJ0U.UUU  have 
been  spent  in  drainage  work.  After  the  barrage  was  put  in  condition 
for  service  perennial  irrigation  in  the  delta  was  greatly  stimulated, 
and  it  became  necessarj^  to  provide  for  removing  the  added  volume  of 
water  drained  from  the  tields.  Much  of  this  water  ran  into  channels 
tributary  to  the  lakes.  (PL  XXIV.)  The  level  of  these  gradually  rose 
and  threatened  large  areas  of  adjoining  farming  lands.  Some  of  the 
lakes  were  drained  b}^  constructing  simple  works  which  permitted  them 
to  flow  into  the  sea  whenever  there  was  sufiicient  difl'erence  in  level. 
Lake  Edku  belongs  to  this  class. 

Lake  Mareotis,  near  Alexandria,  has  prol)ably  given  the  most 
trouble.  Its  surface  varies  from  6i  to  11  feet  below  the  sea  level. 
Unless  it  can  be  maintained  at  least  8  feet  below  sea  level  large  areas 
of  adjoining  lands  already  drained  revert  to  their  original  condition. 
Until  1S92  evaporation  kept  the  level  of  the  lake  at  a  satisfactory 
height  and  pumping  was  not  practiced.  A  pumping  plant  was 
installed  in  the  winter  of  1892-93,  but,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  it 
discharged  2ou  cubic  feet  per  second,  the  level  of  the  lake  was  higher 
the  following  3'ear  than  it  had  been  for  ten  years  before.  This  rise  is 
attributed  to  an  increased  rainfall  as  well  as  to  the  increased  volume 
of  water  from  the  irrigated  lands.  Soon  after  the  installation  of  the 
first  pumps  others  were  added,  until  now  the  plant  has  a  capacity  of 
1,200  cubic  feet  per  second.  The  pumps  are  of  the  centrifugal  pattern 
and  are  required  to  raise  the  water  only  a))out  lo  feet.  They  operate 
from  November  until  the  following  May  or  June.  The  cost  of 
pumping  is  about  20  cents  per  acre-foot,  or  about  60  cents  per 
1,000,000  gallons. 

The  government  owns  two  pumping  plants  besides  the  one  at  Lake 
Mareotis.  One  of  these  is  for  draining  the  Wady  Tumilat,  a  narrow 
strip  of  land  in  a  gap  in  the  Arabian  desert  northeast  of  Cairo,  where 
a  considerable  area  has  been  injured  by  infiltration  from  the  Ismailia 
Canal.  The  station  is  located  at  Kassasin.  The  other  station,  located 
at  Atfeh  and  previously  referred  to,  pumps  water  from  the  Nile  into 
the  Mahmoudia  Canal. 


U.  S   Dept.  of  Agr ,  Bui.  130,  Office  of  Expt   Stations. 


igati 


Plate  XXllI 


U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Bui.  130,  Office  of  Expt.  Stations.      Irrigation  Investigations 


Plate  XXIV. 


LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS. 

CONDITIONS  TO  BE  CONSIDERED. 

Egypt  was  the  crmiiarv  of  the  world  four  thousand  years  ago.  and  it 
is  natural  to  look  to  such  a  country  for  model  irrigation  laws.  Unfortu- 
nately irrigation  in  Egypt  has  developed  under  conditions  ditierent 
from  those  of  any  other  country.  The  character  of  the  Nile  flood  is 
such  that  until  perennial  irrigation  was  introduced  there  was  no  need 
of  laws  and  regulations.  Beyond  some  recent  reforms  therefore,  the 
irrigation  code  of  Egypt  is  as  inapplicable  to  American  conditions  as 
are  the  sakiyeh  and  the  wooden  plow.  While  the  present  irrigation 
law  of  Egypt  provides  that  certain  canals,  drains,  and  other  improve- 
ments are  the  property  of  the  government,  the  rights  of  neither  the 
state  nor  the  irrigator  in  the  water  of  the  Nile  are  defined.  There  ai*e 
no  special  regulations  regarding  the  use  or  the  distril)ution  of  water, 
and  no  legal  limit  is  placed  on  the  volume  applied  to  the  fields. 
Measuring  flumes  and  weirs  are  unknown.  A  reform  is  slowly  ])eing 
brought  about  through  the  gradual  regulation  of  the  capacity  of  the 
lifting  devices,  but  it  will  be  years  before  these  furnish  water  in  ratio 
to  the  area  of  the  land  irrigated.  When  one  of  these  raising  devices 
has  to  be  replaced  by  a  new  one.  or  an  altogether  new  plant  is  installed, 
the  government  prescribes  the  size  of  the  pump,  and  in  this  way  limits 
to  some  extent  the  volume  of  water  furnished  to  the  lands.  Many 
large  pumping  plants  have  been  installed,  which  will  for  years  con- 
tinue in  use  practically  as  they  are  to-day.  Nearly  all  of  these  furnish 
water  in  excess  of  the  quantity  actually  needed.  The  native  farmer 
generally  raises  water  by  some  of  the  ancient  devices,  and  hence  it  is 
that  he  sufl'ers  by  the  introduction  of  the  larg'e  pumping  plants  which 
rapidly  deplete  the  water  supply. 

AUTHORITY  OF  OFFICIALS. 

To  enable  the  positions  of  the  Egyptian  irrigation  ofliccrs  to  be 
understood  it  will  ])e  necessary  to  describe  briefly  the  character  of  the 
government  at  the  present  time,  treating  only  incidentally  the  com- 
plex foreign  relations  which  have  been  entered  into  during  the  past 
thirty  years.  Egypt  i>  divided  into  fourteen  provinces;  six  of  these  are 
in  the  delta  and  eight  in  Upper  Egypt.  The  Eayum  is  one  of  the  latter, 
and  includes  two  oases  in  the  desert.  Two  oases  are  also  included  in 
the  province  of  Assuit.  Egypt,  as  a  whole,  may  be  compared  to  one 
of  our  smaller  States,  and  the  provinces  with  our  counties.  The 
accompanying  map  shows  the  location  of  each  of  these  provinces  and 
also  the  irrigation  circles  or  districts.     (PI.  I.) 

The  chief  oflicer  of  each  province  is  the  governor.  Under  him  is 
the  council,  which  is  made  up  of  the  vice-governor,  the  tax  gatherer, 
a  clerk,  an  accountant,  a  superintendent  of  police,  a  supervisor  of 


62 

canals  and  public  works,  a  head  ph3^sician,  and  a  supreme  judge,  who 
is  a  representative  of  the  Mohammedan  Church  and  is  the  author it}^  on 
religious  affairs.  Some  of  the  larger  towns  have  independent  govern- 
ments similar  to  that  of  the  provinces.  Each  province  is  divided  into 
districts,  over  each  of  which  there  is  a  chief  officer  who  is  at  all  times 
under  the  orders  of  the  governor  of  the  province.  Under  these  dis- 
trict officers  come  the  sheiks,  who  are  nm'ors  or  local  magistrates. 
The  larger  towns  are  also  divided  into  precincts,  each  of  which  has  its 
magistrate. 

In  theory  the  government  of  Egypt  is  one  of  the  most  complicated 
in  the  world;  in  practice  it  is  comparativeh^  simple.  The  British  min- 
ister plenipotentiarv  and  his  advisers  are  the  real  government.  Native 
Egyptian  officers  have  certain  duties,  but  the  English  have  all  the 
authorit}'.  The  theoretical  heads  of  the  government  are  the  Sultan 
of  Turkev,  represented  by  the  khedive;  a  number  of  foreign  nations, 
including  Great  Britain;  while  the  third  and  most  important  is  Great 
Britain  alone.  The  government  therefore  has  three  heads,  onh^  one 
of  which  is  authoritative.  Apparently  the  khedive  is  an  absolute 
monarch;  in  reality  he  has  no  author it}^  except  such  influence  as  the 
local  representative  of  the  Mohammedan  Church  in  a  Mohammedan 
country  would  naturally  have.  Then  again,  Egypt  is  a  dependenc}^  of 
Turkey  and  pays  $2,262.0<i0  annually  in  tribute  to  Turkey,  receiving 
nothing  in  return.  While  the  Sultan  has  no  political  influence  in 
Egypt,  he  is  at  the  head  of  the  Mohammedan  Church.  The  finances 
of  Egypt  are  largely  controlled  by  a  commission  made  up  of  represen- 
tatives from  foreign  countries.  Foreign  judges  sit  in  the  mixed  tri- 
bunals. Criminal  suits  against  foreigners  are  tried  in  consular  courts 
of  the  nationality  of  the  accused,  or  he  is  returned  to  his  own  countr}^ 
and  tried  by  a  competent  court  there. 

A  decree  of  the  khedive  has  no  weight  unless  sanctioned  ))y  the 
British  minister;  neither  can  he  veto  a  measure  against  the  advice  of 
that  official.  Before  an}^  measure  can  become  a  law  it  is  prepared  in 
the  shape  of  a  decree  by  one  of  the  seven  ministers.  The  minister  of 
the  interior  is  the  prime  minister  and  president  of  the  council  of  min- 
isters. Under  him  are  the  minister  of  public  works,  the  minister  of 
public  instruction,  the  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  the  minister  of 
finance,  the  minister  of  justice,  and  the  minister  of  war  and  marine. 
These  ministers  are  native  Egyptians,  but  the  undersecretaries  are 
British  and  control  the  policy  of  each  department.  These  under- 
secretaries are  advised  by  the  British  minister,  and  in  this  wa}^  his 
influence  is  felt  through  ever}^  department  of  the  government.  After 
a  decree  has  been  prepared  by  one  of  the  ministers  it  is  submitted  to 
the  council  of  ministers  and  the  British  financial  adviser,  or  his  dele- 
gate, who  has  a  right  to  attend  the  meetings  of  the  council.  Any  measure 
which  provides  for  a  change  in  the  financial  affairs  of  the  government 


63 

this  official  has  a  right  to  veto.  His  power  in  this  particular  is  abso- 
lute, and  he  is  not  required  to  give  a  reason  for  his  actions.  The 
business  aliairs  between  Eoypt  and  Turkey  are  conducted  by  the  prime 
minister  and  a  special  commissioner  from  Turkey. 

Egypt  has  no  popular  government.  No  elections  are  held:  hence  the 
public  takes  little  interest  in  the  affairs  of  the  government.  In  fact, 
public  sentiment  does  not  exist.  Under  the  organic  law  of  May,  1SS3, 
a  representative  assembly  is  provided  for.  but  the  same  act  contains 
so  many  restrictions  that  the  functions  of  this  body  are  entirely 
advisor}'.  Some  of  the  larger  towns  of  Egvpt  and  the  fourteen  prov- 
inces have  something  like  local  government,  but.  owing  to  the  compli- 
cated nature  of  the  control  of  Egypt,  privileges  of  this  kind  can  not 
be  much  extended.  About  all  the  advantage  enjoyed  b}'  the  provinces 
or  these  cities  is  that  their  local  councils  or  assemblies  may  discuss 
measures  which  affect  their  communities.  The  council  of  ministers 
considers  their  recommendations  when  it  meets,  and  in  this  way  becomes 
acquainted  with  public  needs  as  nearly  as  the  council  can  interpret 
them. 

The  legislative  council,  composed  of  thirty  member.s,  meets  at  Cairo 
about  once  a  month.  Fourteen  of  the  members  of  this  council  are 
named  by  the  government,  and  the  government  reserves  the  right  to 
delegate  anv  other  official  to  attend  its  meetings.  Nothing  can  origi- 
nate in  this  council,  but  it  can  examine  the  estimate  of  expenditures 
and  discuss  decrees  which  affect  internal  administration.  The  gov- 
ernment is  not  required  to  accept  amendments  made  by  the  legislative 
council,  but  the  reasons  for  rejecting  any  amendment  must  he  sub- 
mitted in  writing. 

In  addition  to  the  legislative  council,  there  is  a.bodv  known  as  the 
"general  assembly. *'  It  is  composed  of  the  ministers  of  state,  the  thirty 
members  of  the  legislative  council,  and  forty-six  delegates,  of  whom 
thirty-live  are  chosen  from  the  fourteen  provincial  assemblies  and 
eleven  are  selected  by  the  government.  Before  this  body  caa  meet 
the  khedive  must  issue  a  decree  calling  for  a  session.  The  assembly 
should  convene  every  two  years:  in  practice  its  sessions  are  irregular, 
and  when  it  meets  its  sittings  are  short  and  the  business  coming  V)efore 
it  is  of  minor  importance.  It  has  no  legislative  privileges,  but  can 
veto  any  measures  relating  to  taxation.  No  new  taxes  can  be  imposed 
without  obtaining  the  consent  of  the  general  assembly.  In  fact,  this 
is  its  only  real  power. 

Regardless  of  the  seemingly  complicated  nature  of  the  government, 
the  lawmaking  power  is  quite  simple.  After  the  council  of  ministers 
has  approved  a  decree  it  is  transmitted  to  the  khedive.  It  makes  but 
little  difference  whether  he  signs  it  or  not.  His  power  of  veto  can  not 
be  exercised  when  it  conflicts  with  the  advice  of  the  British  minister. 
As  these  acts  or  decrees  originate  with  the  ministers,  and  the  policies 


64 

of  each  minister  are  dictated  by  a  British  undersecretary,  it  is  but 
seldom  that  measures  are  introduced  tliat  have  not  the  indorsement  of 
the  English. 

The  irrigation  officials  are  under  the  minister  of  public  works  and 
include  an  inspector-general  of  irrigation,  one  inspector  of  irrigation 
for  Upper  Egypt  and  one  for  Lower  Egypt,  and  an  insi^ector-general 
of  reservoirs.  These  officials  are  all  English,  and  all  but  the  inspector- 
general  of  reservoirs  have  permanent  positions,  and  his  will  doubtless 
last  until  reservoir  construction  has  been  completed.  In  the  same 
rank  with  these  officials  stand  six  heads  of  the  irrigation  administra- 
tion, who  are  native  Egyptians.  The  head  of  the  technical  service 
is  an  Egyptian,  and  this  branch  is  closeh'  allied  with  the  irrigation 
administration.  To  him  are  referred  all  technical  questions  relative 
to  the  issuance  of  licenses  for  pumps  and  other  lifting  devices.  The 
survey  department  is  in  a  way  connected  with  the  irrigation  work.  It 
has  an  English  director.  Two  other  departments,  one  dealing  with 
towns  and  buildings  and  the  other  with  antiquities,  have  but  little  to 
do  with  the  irrigation  administration.  The  two  inspectors  for  Upper 
and  Lower  Egypt  and  the  heads  of  the  drawing  and  mapping  divisions 
have  their  offices  at  Cairo. 

Egypt  is  divided  into  irrigation  districts,  which,  for  convenience, 
are  known  as  circles,  and  each  circle  has  an  inspector.  The  inspectors 
of  the  tirst  and  second  circles  have  their  offices  at  Cairo,  the  inspector 
of  the  third  circle  is  at  Alexandria,  of  the  fourth  at  Mineh,  of  the 
fifth  at  Keneh.  and  of  the  sixth  at  Sohag.  The  directors  of  the  first, 
thiid.  and  fourth  circles  are  English.  The  remaining  three  are  Egyp- 
tian. The  inspectors  of  the  circles  have  immediate  charge  of  cleaning 
canals,  buildhig  smaller  diversion  works,  repairing  masonry  structures, 
keeping  gauge  heights  on  the  Nile  and  on  canals,  and  dividing  the 
water  among  canals  in  accordance  with  the  area  under  each  or  as  the 
inspector-general  may  otherwise  instruct.  Under  these  men  are  other 
officials,  most  of  whom  are  natives,  who  travel  about  and  see  that  the 
instructions  of  the  inspectors  of  the  circles  are  carried  out.  Ordinarily 
the  responsibility  of  the  engineer  ends  when  the  water  is  turned  into 
the  canals. 

Ever}^  canal  which  serves  more  than  two  villages  is  held  to  be  public, 
and  comes  directly  under  the  irrigation  administration.  There  is 
nothing  in  the  law  which  requires  a  certain  discharge  to  be  supplied  in 
the  canal  during  any  part  of  the  year.  There  is  nothing  to  prevent  an 
irrigation  official  closing  one  canal  or  all  at  his  pleasure.  When  water 
is  supplied  the  canal  the  irrigator  can  use  as  much  as  he  can  lift  and 
convey  to  his  land.  What  he  does  not  need  he  is  free  to  Avaste.  If 
the  canal  supplies  too  much  water  and  floods  adjoining  land,  or  if  it 
fails  to  supply  enough  to  irrigate  the  farms  depending  on  it,  the  irri- 
gator has  no  recourse  except  to  apply  for  a  remission  of  a  part  or  all 
of  the  tax  ordinarily  paid. 


Go 

During  the  .seasons  of  scarcity  time  rotations  are  enforced,  over 
which  the  engineer  has  ahiiost  al)sohite  control.  The  purpose  of  the 
administration  is  rather  to  sa\'e  the  more  vahia])h^  crops  than  to  ])ro- 
tect  the  irrigators  uniformly.  This  insures  a  maximum  return  to  the 
treasury  through  taxation,  hut  seldom  affords  an  impartial  and  equi- 
table division  of  the  water.  For  instance,  during  some  seasons  rota- 
tions occur  everv  four  days:  that  is,  irrigators  are  allowed  to  use  the 
water  a  certain  length  of  time  and  then  ])e  deprived  of  it  for  four 
da^^s.  During  the  warm  seasons  of  the  year,  in  June  and  July,  four 
days  of  drought  is  sufficient  to  kill  rice.  The  fellah  who  has  planted 
this  crop  is  the '  sufferer,  and,  although  his  taxes  are  remitted,  he  has 
no  income  from  his  land  and  must  earn  his  living  in  some  other  way. 
It  has  been  found  necessary  to  modif}'  the  rotations  under  some  of  the 
longer  canals  because  it  often  occurs  that  the  water  never  reaches  the 
lower  end  of  a  canal.  Usually  when  water  is  turned  into  a  canal  it  is 
allowed  to  run  for  a  da}'  before  an}^  one  is  permitted  to  divert  it.  In 
this  way  it  will  run  a  consideral)le  distance  before  the  volume  is  dimin- 
ished to  any  great  extent. 

CAUSES  OF  LITIGATION. 

Owino-  to  the  fact  that  the  government  controls  the  diversion  and 
division  of  water  there  is  no  litigation  between  irrigators  as  to  water 
rights.  Cases  are  occasionalh'  brought  against  the  government 
because  the  water  supply  is  short  or  because  the  size  of  the  pump  the 
engineers  have  permitted  to  be  installed  does  not  suffice  for  the  irriga- 
tion of  the  lands  it  was  intended  to  serve.  These  cases  are  becoming 
rare,  as  the  engineers  can  generally  show  that  the  water  was  distributed 
as  generously  as  the  supply  furnished  ])y  the  river  would  warrant  and 
that  the  volume  made  available  by  pumping,  if  properly  used  and 
distributed  among  the  irrigators,  would  have  sufficed  for  all. 

Such  suits,  if  the  amount  of  money  involved  is  small,  go  tirst  ])efore 
the  native  courts,  where,  at  present,  a  government  officer  is  usually 
looked  upon  with  suspicion.  For  this  reason  an  engineer  outside  of 
the  government  service  can  often  greath^  annoy  the  administration  by 
making  adverse  reports  or  giving  testimony  in  contradiction  to  that 
presented  b3vthe  government  engineers.  As  the  irrigation  cases  in  the 
courts  are  nearh^  all  small  and  relate  generally  to  rights  of  way  and 
similar  questions,  the  engineers  have  never  had  to  give  them  much 
iittention,  and  as  the  English  have  slowly  instituted  reforms  in  the 
<*ourt  proceedings,  just  decrees. and  decisions  are  now  the  rule  rather 
than  the  exception.  The  Egyptian  engineers  are  also  favored  by  the 
absence  of  any  specitic  laws  or  reguhitions  which  would  limit  them  to 
i'ertain  prescribed  duties.  AVith  the  power  behind  them  which  secured 
them  their  positions  in  the  lirst  place,  they  are  enabled  to  take  what- 
'27T5l^— No.  130—03 .5 


66 

ever  decisive  action  is  necessaiy  and  to  institute  such  reforms  as,  in 
their  judgment,  are  plainh^  necessary. 

Another  question  which  often  leads  to  lawsuit  against  the  govern- 
ment is  the  remission  of  taxes  on  the  irrigated  land  or  the  reduction 
of  taxes  on  the  lands  where  the  water  has  to  be  pumped.  For 
instance,  during  the  summer  of  1901,  only  38  acres  out  of  a  50-acre 
farm  were  covered  during  the  Nile  flow,  leaving  12  acres  to  be 
watered  by  pumping.  As  the  owner  failed  to  notify  the  govern- 
ment at  the  time  that  the  water  was  not  high  enough  to  irrigate  all 
of  his  land,  he  was  taxed  for  the  entire  50  acres  as  though  it  had  all 
received  the  benefit  of  the  high  Nile.  The  government  taxes  on  land 
which  has  to  be  irrigated  by  pumped  water  are  only  half  as  much  as 
where  the  land  is  flooded.  A  suit  of  this  kind  is  often  expensive,  and 
the  testimony'  is  generalh^  quite  voluminous.  If  a  native  brings  the 
suit,  and  the  area  is  small,  involving  a  loss  of  less  than  ^500,  the  case 
goes  to  a  native  court.  If  the  land  belongs  to  a  foreigner  the  case 
goes  to  the  mixed  tribunals.  In  the  former  court  the  proceedings  are 
in  Arabic,  and  the  records  are  published  in  Arabic  and  English.  In 
the  mixed  tribunals  the  proceedings  are  generalh^  in  English,  French, 
or  Italian,  and  the  proceedings  are  alwa3's  published  m  French  or  Ital- 
ian. If  an  appeal  is  taken  from  the  decision  of  the  mixed  tribunals, 
the  case  goes  to  the  court  of  appeals  at  Alexandria,  where  the  pro- 
ceedings are  in  French  and  are  published  in  French. 

When  Mohammed  Ali  undertook  the  execution  of  the  perennial  irri- 
gation works  in  EgA^pt,  he  carried  on  the  reform  as  though  he  were 
the  proprietor  of  all  the  land  and  water  in  Egypt.  He  fixed  the  rate 
of  taxation,  hired  engineers  to  design  the  ii'rigation  works  and  super- 
intend the  construction  of  the  same.  Where  labor  was  wanted,  he  forced 
the  fellaheen  to  leave  their  farms,  either  to  excavate  the  canals  or  to 
work  on  the  numerous  irrigation  structures  connected  therewith.  The 
Egyptian  farmer  has  long  been  used  to  this  kind  of  treatment.  In 
fact,  he  has  never  seen  anything  else  until  within  the  last  fifty  \'ears, 
and  it  will  take  him  a  long  time  to  entirely  recover,  even  if  the  gov- 
ernment makes  it  possible  for  him  to  do  so.  It  is  not  surprising  that 
a  wise  irrigation  code  has  not  developed  in  Egvpt,  when  all  of  these 
conditions  are  considered.  In  a  country  where  land  titles  were  un- 
known, it  would  not  be  presumed  that  the  rights  of  an  irrigator  would 
be  recognized  or  pix)tected. 

Mohammed  Ali,  while  not  granting  permanent  title  to  agricultui-al 
land,  instituted  man}^  reforms.  Among  these  was  the  distribution  of 
from  2i  to  5  or  6  acres  of  land  to  each  person.  This  was  made  quite 
early  in  his  reign,  and  in  1812  he  permitted  the  holders  to  dispose  of 
their  land  as  they  pleased.  At  no  time,  however,  did  they  hold  an}^ 
actual  title  to  the  land  they  farmed.  Together  w^ith  the  lack  of  titles 
and  the  weisfht  of  taxation,  the  fellaheen  have  in  manv  cases  been 


I 


67 

forced  to  dispose  of  their  land,  and  nuich  of  tliis  is  now  included  m  the 
large  estates. 

Under  Ismail  large  tracts  were  confiscated  In^  the  government. 
About  a  fifth  of  the  agricultural  area  of  Egypt  is  either  directly  or 
indirectly  under  the  control  of  the  state  at  the  present  time.  Some- 
thing over  500,000  acres  have  been  in  charge  of  the  Daira  Sanieh, 
which  company  has  a  contract  with  the  government  that  stipulates 
that  the  land  shall  bring  a  fixed  price  when  disposed  of.  About  1)6 
per  cent  of  the  tillable  land  in  this  area  is  rented  in  small  parcels  to 
the  peasantrv.  They  })ay  on  an  average  about  $20  per  acre  per  year 
in  rentals.  The  land  remaining  unsold  in  1905  reverts  to  the  o-overn- 
ment.  The  land  sold  prior  to  that  date  goes  largely  to  the  small 
farmer,  and  whatever  profit  is  made  recompenses  the  company  for  its 
bringing  the  land  under  irrigation  and  placing  it  on  the  market. 
In  this  way  a  large  area  will  return  again  to  the  fellaheen.  About 
1-1:0.000  acres  are  still  included  in  the  domains  of  the  state.  One  hun- 
dred thousand  acres  of  this  land  are  located  in  Upper  Egypt  and  the 
remainder  in  Lower  Egypt.  Probably  80,000  acres  of  this  land  will 
never  be  cultivated. 

While  Ismail  Pasha  inflicted  manv  wrongs  upon  Egypt,  one  of  his 
acts  has  resulted  in  benefit  to  the  people.  He  was  indirectly  responsible 
for  establishmg  the  first  titles  to  farming  land  in  Egypt.  He  taxed 
the  people  to  the  limit,  borrowed  money  Avith  whatever  credit  he 
had,  and  without  credit  when  this  was  exhausted.  In  an  attempt 
to  secure  read}-  money  he  finall}^  issued  a  decree  providing  that  all 
persons  who  paid  their  taxes  six  years  in  advance  would  be  given 
permanent  titles  to  their  land.  Those  who  could  afford  to  do  so 
took  advantage  of  this  offer,  and  the  titles  thus  obtained  have  since 
been  recognized.  The  law  was  repealed  in  1880,  however,  because  it 
was  not  as  good  a  financial  measure  as  it  had  promised  to  be. 

IRRIGATION  AND  DRAINAGE  LAWS. 

When  the  English  engineers  first  undertook  a  study  of  Egyptian 
irrigation  it  was  found  that  the  law  of  Egypt  was  fragmentary  and  it 
was  difficult  for  them  to  tell  what  provisions  were  in  force.  As  earh" 
as  December,  1885,  the  public  works  ministry  issued  regulations 
defining  the  respective  powers  of  the  governors  of  provinces  and  the 
inspectors  of  irrigation.  These  regulations  (see  p.  83)  are  still  in 
force  and  are  among  the  first  reforms  in  irrigation  law. 

Such  duties  as  the  law  of  Egypt  prescribes  for  the  officei-s  in  charge 
of  the  division  of  water  are  not  clearly  defined.  The  relative  powers 
of  the  director-general  of  irrigation  and  the  inspector  of  Upper  and 
Lower  Egypt  and  the  subordinates  are  not  set  forth.  This  leaves  the 
authority  wholly  with  the  director-general  and  enal^les  him  to  take 
such  step.N  as  may  in  hi>  judgment  be  necessary  during  tiiues  of  emer- 


68 

gency.  There  is  nothing-  in  the  hiAV  which  avouIcI  govern  the  acts  of 
the  officials  during  times  when  rotations  are  necessaiy.  The}^  are  not 
autliorized  to  distribute  the  water  so  as  to  save  any  particular  crop  or 
to  favor  any  locality  or  person.  AVhen  a  scarcity  of  water  exists  the 
relations  between  the  governors  of  the  provinces  as  prescribed  by  law 
have  l)ut  little  force.  Water  is  distributed  according  to  plans  originat- 
ing in  Cairo  and  carried  into  etiect  l)v  the  inspectors  for  Upper  and 
Lower  Egypt  and  their  subordinates.  Even  during  such  periods  no 
attention  is  given  to  the  necessities  of  the  irrigators.  Canals  suppWing 
water  to  the  most  valuable  crops  receive  water  in  rotation,  and  each 
irrigator  may  raise  and  use  as  much  as  he  can  while  there  is  water  in 
his  canal.  If  waste  occurs.  l)ut  little  attention  is  paid  to  it.  Under 
this  svstem  one  canal  may  be  favored  this  year  and  another  the  year 
following,  depending  upon  which  serves  for  the  irrigation  of  the  more 
valuable  crops.  The  irrigator,  it  will  be  seen,  has  no  recourse  should 
his  water  supply  fail.  An  appeal  to  the  officers  of  the  province  might 
be  heeded,  but  the  engineers  of  the  government  would  not  be  con- 
strained to  alter  their  plan  of  distribution. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  operation  of  such  a  system  places  all  respon- 
sibility on  the  government.  The  defect  in  the  system  is  that  the  peo- 
ple are  not  considered  as  having  any  rights,  but  are  treated  solely  as 
a  revenue-producing  1)ody.  and  a  farmer  who  i-eceives  water  one  year 
has  no  assurance  that  he  will  be  served  the  next  year.  There  can  be 
no  stability  in  land  values  and  no  justice  in  the  operation  of  a  land-tax 
law  under  such  conditions,  although  the  rate  of  taxation  is.  to  some 
extent,  regulated  by  the  value  of  the  farm  products.  It  seems  that 
the  time  must  come  when  the  distribution  Avill  be  tixed  permanenth'. 
Under  such  a  system  the  farmer  would  know,  as  soon  as  the  stage  of 
the  I'iver  was  reported  from  Assuan.  as  to  whether  he  would  be  sup- 
plied or  not.  The  completion  of  the  reservoir  system  will  do  much 
toward  settling  this  question.  ])ut  it  will  be  tifteen  or  twenty  years 
before  the  farmers  of  Egypt  can  expect  to  receive  entire  relief. 

The  regulation  of  December.  1885  (see  p.  83),  hxes  the  relation 
between  the  governors  of  provinces  and  the  irrigation  officials.  Sec- 
tion 1  provides  that:  "  It  is  the  duty  of  the  governor  to  see  that  a  just 
distribution  of  the  water  is  made  in  the  various  districts  composing 
his  province."  This  is  followed  by  a  sentence  which  reduces  his 
authority  to  reporting  the  needs  of  irrigators  to  the  irrigation  inspec- 
tors and  listening  to  the  complaints  of  the  village  chiefs. 

The  second  section  requires  the  inspectors  to  report  to  the  govern- 
ors, as  well  as  to  the  minister  of  public  works,  should  it  be  impossible 
to  satisfy  all  demands  for  water. 

Section  3  defines  the  duties  and  powers  of  the  inspectors  control- 
ling the  distribution  of  water  and  permits  no  gate  to  be  operated 
without  written  orders  from  them.     If  the  governor  does  not  approve 


69 

of  the  action  of  the  inspector  or  engineer  he  may  appeal  to  the  minister 
of  the  interior,  but  the  order  of  the  inspector  will  stand  until  coun- 
termanded b}^  the  hio-her  official.  During  high  Nile,  or  whenever 
work  is  necessary  to  avoid  disaster,  the  orders  of  the  governor  super- 
sede those  of  the  engineer,  and  the  engineer  gives  notice  that  discord 
exists,  when  the  governor  ])ecomes  responsible  for  what  takes  plac6. 
As  the  work  is  largely  of  an  engineering  character,  it  is  only  in  rare 
cases  that  the  governor  prefers  to  take  charge  in  the  lield. 

The  classification  of  improvement  works  provided  for  in  articles  9 
and  10  is  worthy  of  notice.  The  governor  has  nothing  to  do  with 
awarding  the  contracts  for  excavation  requiring  the  services  of  more 
than  1,000  men,  masonry  work  costing  more  than  $97-1,  or  work  where 
machinery  is  necessary.  The  law  provides,  however,  that  the  gov- 
ernor shall  be  notified  as  to  the  character  of  the  contract,  and  he  has 
the  privilege  of  reporting  any  failure  on  the  part  of  the  contractor  to 
the  engineer.  In  smaller  improvement  works  the  governor  and 
engineer  work  together,  selecting  the  contractor  and  supervising  the 
work,  the  governor  being  the  judge  as  to  the  reliability  of  bidders. 

This  regulation  not  onh^  prepared  the  wa}^  for  the  irrigation  laws 
that  were  to  follow,  but  made  it  much  easier  to  introduce  reform  meas- 
ures regarding  the  corvee.  As  soon  as  the  contractors  on  large  enter- 
prises were  brought  directly  under  the  minister  of  public  works  and 
his  assistants  a  solution  of  some  of  the  labor  problems  could  be  under- 
taken. It  was  supposed  at  the  time  the  regulation  went  into  force 
that  the  use  of  machinery  Avould  go  a  long  way  toward  reducing  the 
labor  of  the  corvee,  but  experience  has  not  proven  this  to  be  the  case. 

While  the  need  of  better  laws  was  evident  to  the  engineers  under 
the  Egyptian  Government,  it  was  impossible  or  impracticable  to  })ring 
about  the  enactment  of  a  fairh^  comprehensive  code  until  189-1. 

The  first  article  of  this  decree  (see  p.  85)  defines  a  canal  as  a  water- 
wa}^  which  supplies  more  than  two  villages.  These  are  public  and  are 
maintained  by  the  government.  A  ditch  is  a  channel  which  provides 
water  for  one  or  two  villages,  or  for  land  V)elonging  to  one  person  or 
family,  even  if  located  in  several  villages.  These  latter  are  private 
propert}'  and  must  be  maintained  by  those  deriving  benefit  therefrom, 
but  the  government  may  clean  them  should  the  owners  neglect  to  do 
so  and  tax  the  cost  against  the  owners.  As  the  number  of  irrigators 
under  any  canal  increase,  the  necessity  for  government  control  in 
this  respect  evidently  becomes  greater. 

Drains  are  classified  in  much  the  same  manner  as  are  ditches  and 
canals.  If  a  drain  serves  but  one  or  two  villages  it  is  considered  as  a 
private  work,  unless  it  serves  more  than  2,000  acres.  In  the  latter 
case  or  when  it  serves  more  than  two  villages  it  is  considered  pul)lic. 
Drains  are  maintained  under  the  same  regulation  as  are  canals  and 
ditche."?.     This  is  prol)ably  due  to  the  difficulty  of  distributing  the  work 


70 

of  maintenance  fairly  among  the  owners.  A  provision  has  therefore 
been  inserted  in  article  '2  under. which  any  ditch  may  be  considered  as 
public  property  should  it  serve  for  the  irrigation  of  as  much  as  1.000 
acres  belonging  to  several  persons. 

Embankments  and  levees  for  protecting  the  country  against  the 
flood  of  the  Xile  are  considered  pu))lic  property.  These  are  main- 
tained l)y  the  government. 

Article  6  and  niany  others  of  this  decree  have  1)een  recommended  by 
the  inspectors.  During  the  lirst  ten  or  twelve  years  of  English  occu- 
pation the  provisions  of  section  0  would  have  been  of  great  benelit  in 
many  cases.  It  stipulates  that  the  owners  of  lands  through  which  a 
public  ditch  passes  can  not  destroy  the  same  in  order  to  make  the  land 
tillal)le  without  the  written  consent  of  the  persons  depending  on  the 
canal. 

If  it  is  necessarv  to  clos(^  a  canal  for  repairs  or  in  order  to  give  the 
water  to  others  who  are  in  greater  need,  irrigators  -can  collect  no 
indemnity  from  the  g'overnment  for  the  loss  occasioned  by  a  lack  of 
water. 

Article  8  is  particularly  interesting  to  those  who  have  made  a  stud}^ 
of  public  supervision  of  water.  One  of  the  tirst  necessities  under 
such  supervision  is  that  the  State  shall  have  authority  to  limit  the 
diversion  of  water  when  further  canal  construction  ma}'  injure  users 
already  on  the  ground.  Even  in  Egypt,  where  the  Nile  furnishes  an 
almost  unlimited  supply  during  a  large  portion  of  the  year,  it  has 
been  found  necessary  to  limit  construction  work  where  the  rights  of 
others  are  threatened.  The  intent  of  the  law  throughout  is  to  dis- 
tribute the  cost  of  irrigation  works  in  proportion  to  the  benefits 
received  by  each  user.  This  is  well  illustrated  in  the  article  under 
discussion.  If  a  permit  is  granted  authorizing  the  construction  of  a 
ditch  others  may  use  the  works,  providing  they  pay  toward  the  cost 
of  construction  and  maintenance  in  proportion  to  the  benefits  they  are 
to  receive. 

The  procedure  for  condemning  lands  for  right  of  Avay  for  canals  and 
ditches  is  set  forth  in  article  9. 

The  value  of  farming  land  in  Egypt  is  well  illustrated  by  the  pro- 
vision of  article  10  relating  to  enlargements  of  existing  ditches.  A 
right  of  way  does  not  give  the  canal  owners  title  to  land  lying  on  either 
side  of  the  channel;  hence  when  enlargement  is  contemplated  it  is 
necessary  to  condemn  the  additional  land  that  must  be  used  for  the 
enlargement. 

Article  12  relates  to  the  diversion  of  water  from  canals.  No  lateral 
can  be  taken  from  a  canal  without  the  approval  of  the  inspector,  but 
if  it  is  desired  to  install  a  sakiyeh  the  chief  engineer  decides  the  matter, 
and  also  designates  the  location  of  the  lateral  or  sakiyeh.     Permits  are 


71 

applied  for  and  o-rantod  under  provisions  of  the  deeree  of  March  8, 
1881. 

Where  a  ditch,  canal,  or  drain  becomes  a  detriment  to  agriculture 
in  any  wa}',  it  ma}'  be  tilled  in  at  the  request  of  the  owners  of  adjoin- 
ing property,  providing  another  watercourse  can  be  used  in  its  place 
without  injuring  other  lands. 

Article  11  illustrated  the  necessity  of  limiting  the  size  of  ditches  and 
head  gates  to  the  dimensions  necessary  for  serving  the  lands  irrigated 
therefrom.  If  water  were  measured  in  Egypt  as  it  is  in  some  of  the 
irrigated  districts  of  the  United  States  there  would  he  no  necessit}^ 
for  such  restrictions.  The  time  and  money  spent  in  changing  the 
dimensions  of  canals  and  masonry  regulating  works  would  go  far 
toward  maintaining  an  adequate  system  of  discharge  measurements. 

The  close  relation  between  irrigation  and  drainage  is  evident  through- 
out the  decree.  Article  15  sets  forth  the  procedure  for  locating  a 
drain  when  the  party  to  be  benefited  and  the  party  through  whose  land 
the  drain  is  to  pass  fail  to  come  to  an  understanding. 

The  provision  of  article  19  is  interesting  when  compared  with  the 
laws  of  some  of  the  Western  States.  The  article  relates  to  the  break- 
ing of  ditch  banks,  embankments,  etc.,  and  prescribes  that  if  such  an 
offense  is  committed  complaint  is  made  to  the  governor,  who  refers 
the  matter  to  the  inspector  or  chief  engineer,  who  makes  an  examina- 
tion of  the  ground,  after  having  given  at  least  fourteen  days'  notice  of 
the  examination.  It'  the  accused  is  found  guilty  he  is  required  to 
restore  the  property  or  bear  the  expense  of  such  work  as  ma}^  be 
necessar}^  to  restore  it.  In  some  of  our  States  the  fact  that  the  water 
has  been  used  is  prima  facia  evidence  that  a  ditch  ])ank  has  been  cut 
or  a  head  gate  has  been  tampered  with.  No  notice  is  necessary  and 
the  water  commissioner  has  police  authority  and  can  arrest  the  offender 
at  once. 

Another  example  illustrates  how  slowlv  the  law  is  carried  into  effect 
in  Egypt.  If  in  the  judgment  of  the  engineer  a  small  gate  needs 
repairs,  forty  days'  notice  must  be  given  the  interested  parties,  that 
they  ma}'  remedy  it.  If  the  work  is  not  accomplished  in  the  time, 
another  period  of  forty  days  is  allowed.  If  the  parties  still  fail  to 
perform  the  work  the  government  has  it  done  at  the  expense  of  the 
owners. 

The  decree  does  not  detine  the  rights  of  irrigators,  the  unit  of  meas- 
urement, or  the  basis  upon  which  the  water  shall  be  divided  among 
claimants,  while  other  details  of  seeming  less  importance  to  us  have 
been  fully  set  forth. 

The  Egyptian  government  can  compel  the  owner  of  land  through 
which  a  canal  runs  to  remove  trees  which  are  found  to  interfere  with 
the  full  flow  of  water  in  the  canal.     It  permits  cultivation  of  a  canal 


and  its  banks  under  certain  restrictions,  but  assumes  no  responsibility 
and  no  claim  can  be  brouoht  against  it  should  the  crops  be  lost  or 
damaged.  If  the  bank  is  needed  for  a  highway  or  other  purposes,  no 
procedure  is  necessar}^  in  order  to  convert  it  into  such,  and  the  farmer 
who  may  have  planted  crops  thereon  has  no  recourse. 

The  articles  relating  to  offenses  and  prescribing  penalties  therefor 
indicate  that  the  engineers  who  framed  the  law  desired  to  cover  all 
offenses  which  had  been  called  to  their  attention  during  the  previous 
ten  or  twelve  3^ears.  The  sections  referring  to  navigation  are  inter- 
esting in  so  far  as  the}'  show  the  importance  of  the  canals  to  the  internal 
commerce  of  the  country.     The  decree  is  given  in  full  in  Appendix  I. 

INSTALLATION  OF  WATER-RAISING  DEVICES. 

The  decree  of  March  8,  1881,  relative  to  the  installation  of  machines 
for  raising  water,  propelled  by  steam,  b}-  a  current  of  water,  or  by 
the  wind,  provides  that  persons  intending  to  erect  such  devices  shall 
first  apply  for  a  permit,  which  application  is  approved  or  rejected,  as 
the  minister  of  public  works  or  the  head  of  the  technical  commission 
may  decide.  The  decree  exhibits  plainly  the  attitude  of  the  govern- 
ment toward  the  user  of  water.  In  article  7  it  is  stated  that  the 
approval  of  the  permit  carries  with  it  no  assurance  from  the  govern- 
ment that  water  will  be  supplied  the  water-raising  device.  In  other 
words,  the  government  may  approve  of  the  installation  of  a  water- 
raising  device  on  a  canal  or  a  branch  of  the  Nile  where  the  water  sup- 
ph'  is  inado([uate.  Tht;  government  does  not  keep  itself  informed  as 
to  the  actual  discharge  of  the  various  waterways  which  serve  the  irri- 
gator, nor  do  the  irrigation  officials  know  the  capacity'  of  the  water- 
raising  devices  which  are  already  in  operation.  After  application  has 
been  made  for  a  permit  to  establish  a  water-raising  device  one  of  the 
officials  of  the  technical  department  makes  an  examination  of  the  site 
where  it  is  proposed  to  erect  the  machine.  The  approval  or  rejection 
of  the  application  generally  depends  upon  the  report  of  this  officer. 
AVhen  the  application  is  granted  a  permit  is  given  the  applicant.  The 
technical  department  keeps  a  supply  of  the  permit  ])lanks,  Avhich  are 
bound  in  book  form.  The  stubs  of  these  blanks  contain  the  permit  in 
full,  one  side  of  the  sheet  being  printed  in  French  and  the  other  side 
in  Arabic.  The  permit  itself,  which  is  torn  from  the  stub  when  the 
application  is  approved,  is  printed  in  Arabic  only.  On  the  reverse  of 
the  permit  are  extracts  from  the  law  relating  to  the  installation  of 
machines  for  raising  water.  These  extracts  are  taken  from  the  decree 
of  March  s,  1881,  and  from  the  decree  of  April  6,  1881.  The  form  of 
permit  is  as  follows: 


73 


[Form  No.  12S  T.  P.] 


Minister  of  Public  Works. 
TErHNiCAi.  s:ervice. 


Permit  No. . 

NAME  OF   APPLICANT. 


CAPACITY   OF  THE   DEVICE. 


No.- 


Regular  permit  lor^ 
stationary  water-  v  Certificate, 
raising  device,     j 


The  applicant  acknowledges 
receipt  of  this  permit,  together 
with  a  copy  of  the  agreements 
and  conditions  imposed  and  of 
the  design. 

Cairo. .  1S9— . 

Correctly  translated. 
Cairo. .  ]S9— . 


Mr. 


residing  at 


province  of 


is  author- 


ized, under  the  decree  of  March  8  and  the  rules  of  April  G,  1881, 
relative  to  water-rai.>*ing  devices,  and  according  to  the  report  of 

the circle  of  irrigation,  under  date  of  at  in 

,  province  of  . water-raising  device having 

a  capacity  of H.  P..  intended  to  propel  a  pump  for acres, 

appurtenant  to . 

The  device  will  be on  the  - 


according  to  the  design. 


accepted  by  the  applicant  and  in  conformity  with  the  agreements 
and  conditions  imposed  by  the  aforesaid  report,  a  copy  of  which, 
together  with  a  copy  of  the  design,  is  attached  hereto. 

The  applicant  hereby  agrees  to  abide  by  the  provisions  of  this 
permit  and  al.so  by  the  instructions  that  will  be  given  him  by  the 
said  circle  of  irrigation,  to  which  this  y)ermit  must  be  shown 
whenever  it  is  requested. 

A  failure  to  abide  by  the  conditions  and  obligations  imposed  by 
this  permit  will  release  the  undersigned  from  all  provisions  of 
this  permit,  without  prejudicing  the  right  which  the  government 
reserves  to  recover  damages  and  reimbursement  for  expenses 
incurred.     (Article  4  of  the  decree  of  March  8. 1881.) 

Done  at  Cairo, ,  189 — . 


Chiff  of  Technical  Service. 
Accepted  by  the  undersigned  applicant. 

Cairo, .  189—. 

Approved. 
Cairo. 


189- 


This  permit  is  of  special  interest  because  it  is  the  only  form  which 
is  recognized  by  the  Egyptian  irrigation  law \  It  is  the  onh'  paper 
which  the  government  g'ives  an  irrigator  that  recognizes  in  any  way 
the  right  to  divert  and  use  water.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  permit 
states  the  horsepower  of  the  engine  which  propels  the  pump  and  the 
area  of  the  land  proposed  to  be  irrigated.  It  gives  no  information 
regarding  the  height  of  the  lift,  the  size  of  the  pump,  or  the  efficiency 
of  the  engine. 

The  decree  relating  to  the  installation  of  water-lifting  machineiy 
other  than  that  just  described  (Appendix  II.  p.  96)  is  of  special  inter- 
est, and  is  of  a.s  much  importance  as  any  of  the  laws  or  regulations 
governing  the  use  of  water.  The  original  decree  was  i.ssued  in  1S81, 
and  its  provisions  were  extended  in  1890.  Anv  person  may  still  con- 
struct and  maintain  a  sakiyeh,  a  shaduf ,  or  other  w^ater-lifting  device, 
except  those  mentioned  in  article  1  of  the  decree  of  1881,  upon  the 
banks  of  the  Nile.  Permission  must  be  obtained  from  the  govern- 
ment before  water-lifting  devices  of  any  kind  may  be  erected  on  the 
banks  of  canals.  As  the  Nile  in  manv  respects  differs  but  little  from 
man}'  of  the  canals,  it  is  rather  strange  that  this  distinction  has  been 
made.  The  levees  are  more  difficult  to  maintain  than  are  the  banks  of 
the  canals.  Both  classes  of  channels  are  public  property,  and  most 
canals,  as  well  as  the  river,  are  navigable.     Navigation  interests,  how- 


74 

ever,  are  secondary  to  the  needs  of  the  irrio-ator,  as  is  shown  in  the 
inconvenience  to  which  river  boatmen  are  subjected  when  the  entire 
discharge  of  the  Nile  is  turned  into  the  hirge  canals  in  the  delta. 

DRAINAGE. 

The  most  important  drainage  work  in  Egypt  is  prosecuted  by  the 
government.  A  large  part  of  the  main  drains  and  the  largest  of  the 
pumping  plants  are  therefore  under  its  control.  However,  there  are 
a  number  of  large  holdings,  both  in  the  delta  and  in  Upper  Egypt, 
where  drainage  is  necessary.  The  government  has  also  disposed  of  a 
num])er  of  tracts  under  condition  that  the  land  be  reclaimed  and 
improved  so  as  to  yield  a  revenue  to  the  treasury.  There  are  to-day 
large  areas  in  the  delta  which  must  be  drained  before  as  much  of 
Lower  Egypt  will  be  cultivated  as  was  farmed  before  the  invasion  of 
the  Turks,  who  permitted  the  drainage  system  to  deteriorate.  The 
Societe  du  Behera,  owning  lands  near  Alexandria,  has  done  much  in 
the  line  of  reclamation  through  drainage.  Water  is  tirst  drawn  off  by 
drains  or  b}^  pumping,  and  large  volumes  of  fresh  water  are  applied. 
The  surface  is  kept  well  cultivated,  and  gradually  the  salts  are  removed 
to  such  an  extent  that  rice  can  be  grown.  After  a  few  3^ears  of  rice 
cultivation  more  valuable  crops  can  be  substituted. 

In  1880  there  were  about  -138, 000  acres  of  public  land  outside  of 
that  which  had  recently  been  acquired  from  the  khedival  estates  and 
put  in  charge  of  the  Daira  Sanieh  administration.  In  1899  this  area 
had  decreased  to  210,000  acres,  the  remainder  having  been  sold  to 
farmers.  In  1880  the  Daira  Sanieh  administration  controlled  about 
520,000  acres.     In  1899  they  had  but  302,000  acres  remaining. 

As  a  considerable  portion  of  this  land  required  drainage  works,  it 
became  necessary  for  the  government  to  enact  laws  which  should 
place  the  work  partially  under  government  control.  It  was  essential 
that  the  government  engineers  should  have  authority  to  direct  this 
reclamation,  so  that  the  svstems  planned  and  constructed  bv  private 
parties  should  supplement  rather  than  interfere  with  the  work  already 
performed  b}^  the  government.  Two  decrees  have  been  rendered 
relating  to  drainage.  One  was  issued  February  21,  1891,  the  other 
not  until  April  26,  1900.'  The  decrees  in  full  are  given  in  Appendix 
III.  p.  99. 

THE  CORVEE. 

The  sj^stem  of  forced  and  unpaid  labor  known  as  the  corvee  has 
alwa3^s  been  an  important  factor  in  all  kinds  of  public  construction  in 
Egypt.  From  building  the  Pyramids  to  digging  the  Suez  Canal  or  the 
excavation  of  a  small  drain,  the  corvee  has  been  called  into  service. 
The  labor  of  the  corvee  has  made  Egypt  renowned  for  the  products  of 
the  soil. 


75 

The  conditions  under  which  such  a  system  has  obtained  a  foothold 
in  Egypt  are  largely  responsible  for  the  adoption  of  existing  laws  and 
regulations  governing  the  use  of  water.  The  difference  in  the  stand- 
ing of  farmers  in  the  United  States  and  in  Egypt  is  almost  wholly 
produced  by  the  operation  of  the  corvee  regulations.  If  we  are  to 
make  it  clear  as  to  why  certain  law^s  and  practices  are  particularly  well 
adapted  to  Egypt  and  not  suited  to  arid  America,  the  relation  between 
the  farmers  called  into  the  corvee  ser\-ice  and  the  governing  classes 
should  be  set  forth  in  some  detail.^  Formerly  the  corvee  was  called 
upon  for  all  kinds  of  public  and  private  service.  At  present  the  sys- 
tem must  be  considered  as  an  intermediate  step  between  slavery  and 
freedom;  many  changes  for  the  better  have  been  introduced  during 
the  past  one  hundred  ^^ears  and  the  future  independence  of  the  Egyptian 
farmer  seems  assured. 

But  little  has  been  recorded  of  the  character  of  the  corvee  during 
the  early  history  of  Egypt.  The  immense  masonry  monuments  and 
temples,  as  well  as  the  irrigation  works  which  still  exists,  show  how  the 
unpaid  labor  was  utilized.  Up  to  the  time  of  Joseph,  some  1750  years 
B.  C,  the  practice  was  recognized,  and  abuses  became  common  after 
the  system  of  slaverv  inaugurated  under  his  administration  came  into 
full  effect.  The  government  owned  the  people  and  everything  in 
Egypt  from  that  time  until  during  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  Some  of  the  I'ecent  reports  dealing  with  the  use  and  abuse 
of  this  free  labor  enable  us  to  realize  to  what  extent  the  fellah  has  been 
imposed  upon.  The  following  report  on  forced  labor  by  Mr.  H. 
Yilliers  Stuart  in  March.  1883,  sets  forth  the  faults  in  the  system  at 
that  time: 

FORCED    LABOR    IX    THE    DELTA. 

The  complaints  made  upon  this  subject  are  that  the  apportionment  is  ar)>itrary 
and  capricious,  poor  districts  being  required  to  furnish  most  and  wealthy  districts 
fewest  laborers. 

The  richer  class  of  landowners  is  also  entirely  exempt.  They  suggest  that  in 
lieu  of  the  present  system  there  should  be  a  proportionate  labor  rate  upon  all  land 
alike,  instead  of  throwing  the  burden  upon  those  least  able  to  bear  it. 

Every  landowner  up  to  100  acres  is  liable  to  forced  labor;  but  he  may,  if  he  likes, 
pay  a  substitute.  Some  go  and  work  themselves  and  some  send  substitutes.  Those 
who  possess  no  land  are  not  liable. 

Those  who  are  liable  get  no  pay  whatever  for  their  work;  neither  does  the  govern- 
ment provide  them  with  any  food  whatever.  Their  friends  at  home  have  to  send 
them  food  from  their  villages.  Usually  bread  dried  in  the  sun  is  their  sole  nourish- 
ment. It  is  sent  in  sacks,  a  couple  of  men  from  each  village  being  deputed  to  convey 
it  to  the  scene  of  operation.     They  have  also  to  find  their  own  tools  and  baskets. 

«  The  system  has  had  great  influence  on  the  practice  of  irrigation  and  has  made 
necessary  the  enactment  of  law^s  which  would  not  be  applicable  in  countries  where 
the  same  conditions  do  not  exist.  In  discussing  the  customs  of  the  people  of  Kgypt 
and  the  irrigation  law  there  in  operation,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  regulations 
which  might  operate  satisfactorily  there  would  fail  in  the  United  States  where 
authority  comes  from  the  people. 


7a 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  their  hands  are  often  their  only  tools.  With  these  they  load  the 
baskets  and  excavate  the  soil.  No  shelter  is  provided  for  them  at  night  nor  any 
covering.  A  certain  number  of  overseers  are  appointed.  These  are  armed  with 
sticks  and  superintend  the  work. 

One  complaint  made  universally  was  that  instead  of  allowing  tlie  men  of  each  dis- 
trict to  work  in  their  own  districts  the  jiractice  was  to  send  them  to  distant  parts  of 
the  province,  thus  needlessly  increasing  the  difficulty  and  cost  of  feeding  them  and 
ministering  to  their  wants. 

Common  sense  would  seem  to  suggest  employment  on  the  canals  and  em})ank- 
ments  in  their  own  neighborhood  by  preference,  because  they  would  then  have  a 
(hrect  personal  interest  in  the  work. 

They  complained  that  there  was  much  bribery  and  corruption  connected  with  the 
appointment  of  the  forced  laljor,  wealthy  communities  thus  purchasing  partial 
exemptions  at  the  expense  of  those  who  were  too  poor  to  bribe  high  enough.  They 
said  that  this  was  the  real  reason  why  the  system  of  letting  each  district  find  the 
labor  for  its  own  public  works  was  not  adopted,  because  that  would  be  an  obstacle  to 
these  corrupt  exemptions. 

All  admitted  forced  labor  to  be  a  necessary  institution  in  Egypt,  the  maintenance 
of  canals  and  embankments  being  of  vital  importance,  but  there  had  been  great 
abuses,  and  even  now  they  assured  me  that  men  were  still  forced  to  labor  on  the 
estates  of  the  government  and  of  the  wealthy  pashas,  but  they  said  that  now  those 
so  employed  on  the  2:)rivileged  lands  received  pay;  previously  they  received  none. 
This  abuse,  like  many  others,  has  been  nominally  abolished,  but  nevertheless  con- 
tinues, the  sheiks  conniving.  Indeed,  it  is  through  their  instrumentality  ah^ne  that 
these  abuses  are  possible. 

FOKCEl)    J.AHOK    IX    UPPER    EtiVPT. 

A  cut  about  18  feet  deep  has  been  made  through  a  conglomerate  of  sand  and 
gravel;  this  trench  was  flanked  right  and  left  by  high  embankments,  consisting  of 
the  debris  excavated. 

From  the  summit  of  these  ridges  to  the  floor  of  the  canal  was  from  35  to  40  feet 
deep;  along  the  bottom  and  on  the  slopes  right  and  left  men  swarmed  thickly  like 
bees  on  a  honeycomb  for  a  distance  of  about  a  mile  in  length. 

The  overseer  told  me  that  the  entire  forced  labor  of  the  province  was  concentrated 
there,  40,000  men  in  all;  that  they  worked  from  sunrise  to  sunset  without  intermis- 
sion except  a  brief  interval  at  midday  for  a  meal  consisting  of  bread  soaked  in  unfil- 
tered  Nile  water.  This  bread  was  sent  to  them  by  their  relatives,  and  they  had  a 
meal  of  it  before  conunencing  work  and  another  at  night.  They  have  also  to  pro- 
vide their  own  baskets  for  carrying  the  excavated  soil.  They  were  engaged  in  fill- 
ing these  baskets  with  gravel  (using  their  fingers  for  the  purpose),  climbing  the 
sides  of  the  cut,  and  tipping  them  on  the  outer  slope.  The  majority  had  no  imple- 
ments but  their  hands.  A  limited  number  had  short  i)icks  a  foot  long,  which  they 
also  have  to  provide,  the  government  contributing  nothing  whatever. 

The  day  was  excessively  hot,  and  not  a  breath  of  wind.  The  temperature  in  my 
cabin  with  all  windows  open  was  82  degrees  in  the  shade.  At  the  bottom  of  that 
trench  it  was  much  hotter. '  I  should  estimate  it  at  95  degrees.  There  was  absolutely 
no  shade.  In  this  fiery  heat  and  glare  and  amid  dust  they  toiled  all  day  long. 
They  were  clad  in  calico,  mostly  reduced  to  rags  by  the  work  they  were  engaged  in. 
They  wore  on  their  heads  felt  skull  caps  exactly  like  those  represented  as  worn  by 
workmen  in  fourth  dynasty  has  reliefs.  They  were  barefooted.  Their  calico  rags 
formed  their  only  covering  at  night,  and  they  slept  on  the  bare  ground  in  the  open  air 
without  any  kind  of  shelter,  although  the  nights  are  often  very  cold.  Among  them 
were  many  overseers  armed  with  sticks,  with  which  they  often  struck  the  men  while 
carrying  loads  on  their  heads,  without  any  apparent  reason.  Many  had  sore  fingers 
and  sore  feet,  for  there  were  sharp  flints  among  the  debris. 


'i  i 

I  have  seen  negro  slaves  at  work  on  the  cotton  pUmtations '  of  Cuba;  I  have  also 
seen  the  convicts  at  work  at  Portland.  The  conditions  under  wliich  all  these  labored 
were  greatly  preferable  to  those  to  which  these  Egyptian  fellaheen  were  exposed, 
and  it  must  be  remembered  that  most  of  them  own  farms  and  constitute,  in  fact,  the 
yeomanry  of  Upper  Egypt. 

AVhat  struck  me  most  as  I  gazed  on  the  toiling  multitude  was  the  pitiable  waste  of 
human  labor,  for  one-fourth  the  number,  with  proper  tools  and  appliances  and  suth- 
cient  food,  and  with  intelligent  and  experienced  foremen  to  direct  them,  could  have 
done  the  Avork  far  better  and  more  quickly  than  the  ill-directed  efforts  of  that  mob 
of  men,  without  implements,  weak  from  scanty  diet  and  exhausted  l)y  hardship. 
An  English  navvy  would  laugh  at  their  work  as  excavators,  but  the  conditions  as  to 
food,  temperature,  and  exposure  under  Avhich  they  work  would  kill  him  long  before 
the  month  was  out.  Ophthalmia  is  one  evil  that  results.  I  can  not  imagine  a  better 
receipt  for  the  wholesale  manufacture  of  this  malady  than  to  work  men  to  exhaus- 
tion in  fiery  heat  and  glare  and  dust  all  day  and  then  to  expose  them  at  night  to  the 
heavy  dew  and  frosty  temperature,  lying  on  the  bare  ground  in  their  calico  dresses. 

It  must  not  be  supposed  that  because  the  government  pays  nothing  for  it  that  there- 
fore forced  labor,  as  now  conducted,  is  cheap;  on  the  contrary,  it  is  most  costly  to 
the  country.  Everyman  there  withdrawn  from  the  cultivation  of  his  farm  repre- 
sents a  family  by  so  much  impoverished. 

One-half  of  the  able-bodied  population  is  engaged  for  between  three  and  four 
months  in  the  year  in  forced  labor.  That  means  that  the  second  crop  on  their  farms 
is  reduced  in  productiveness  by  one-half;  that  on  the  lands  where  4  ardebs  (21.76 
bushels)  per  acre  could  have  l)een  yielded  had  all  the  hands  remained  at  home,  only 
2  are  yielded  owing  to  deficient  irrigation  when  half  the  hands  are  withdrawn;  that 
is  to  say,  that  it  amounts  to  a  tax  of  21s.  (85.04)  per  acre  on  every  acre  devoted  to 
second  crops.  Where  land  is  rented,  not  owned,  these  second  crops  often  constitute 
all  the  return  the  cultivator  gets,  rent  and  land  tax  entirely  swallowing  up  the  first; 
the  price  the  government  pays  is  the  pauperization  of  the  people  and  the  reduction 
of  their  taxpaying  capacity,  but  that  is  not  the  whole  price.  There  are  not  men 
enough  in  Eg;>'pt  to  cultivate  it  properly  or  to  develop  its  resources  fully;  the  gov- 
ernment, grudging  the  cost  of  food  and  implements,  is  prodigal  only  in  men,  the 
very  article  that  most  needs  here  to  be  economized.  If  they  can  save  the  expense  of 
tools  by  setting  four  or  five  men  to  do  the  work  which  one  man  with  tools  and  food 
could  easily  accomplish,  they  send  the  five  men  and  withhold  the  tools  and  food.  I 
fear,  also,  that  the  sacrifice  of  men  is  not  merely  temporary;  men  can  not  be  exposed 
with  impunity  to  the  hardships  which  1  witnessed.  The  constitutions  and  health  of 
many  must  be  permanently  impaired,  even  their  lives  shortened.  Twenty  thousand 
men  are  said  to  have  perished  in  making  the  Mahmoudia  Canal,  and  I  can  well 
believe  it  after  what  I  witnessed  near  Keneh. 

It  must  be  accepted  for  a  fact  that  forced  labor  exists  with  the  consent  of  the  great 
mass  of  the  people  of  Egypt.  I  have  heard  them  complain  of  this  or  that  tax  and 
suggest  its  abolition,  and  I  have  heard  them  complain  of  the  unfair  apportionment  of 
forced  labor  in  their  district,  Imt  I  never  heard  one  single  person  of  any  class  suggest 
the  abolition  of  the  forced-labor  system.  They  admit  it  to  be  necessary,  but  it  does 
not  follow  on  that  account  that  nothing  can  be  done  to  reform  its  conditions.  The 
first  term  of  labor  should  be  postponed  till  the  first  crops  are  thrashed  out  and  sold 
and  tlie  second  crops  well  established  and  less  likely  to  suffer  from  defective  irriga- 
tion. The  men  should  be  supplied  by  the  government  with  nourishing  food.  Two 
or  three  intervals  for  food  and  rest  should  be  allowed  in  the  day,  instead  of  only 
one.  Proper  implements  for  excavating  shoukl  be  supplied  to  them.  Labor-saving 
machinery  should  be  introduced  where  possible.  Skilled  foremen  should  direct  the 
works.  The  men  should  be  divided  systematically  into  gangs,  each  gang  with  its 
own  task  marked  out,  instead  of  the  desultory  fashions  which  now  prevail,  for  they 
work  in  a  mob  and  every  man   i:*  in  his  neighbor's  way.     Some  shelter  ought  to  be 


78 

arranged  for  the  night,  if  possible,  or,  at  any  rate,  they  should  be  supplied  with  a 
warm  wrap,  no  matter  how  coarse;  old  sacks  would  be  better  than  nothing. 

REFORM  OF  THE  CORVEE  SYSTEM. 

AVhen  the  English  engineers  began  their  work,  in  l88o,  they  found 
that  all  earthwork  necessar}^  in  the  construction  and  cleaning  of  canals 
was  performed  b}^  this  kind  of  labor.  Under  the  original  basin  sys- 
tem, before  the  farmer  had  a  title  to  the  land  he  cultivated  and  while 
he  was  simph^  a  slave,  this  practice  might  have  been  excusable.  There 
are  no  good  reasons,  however,  wh}'  it  should  have  been  continued  after 
the  reforms  introduced  bv  Mohammed  Ali  were  put  in  operation. 
Under  the  old  s3^stem  the  farmer  had  nothing  to  do  when  there  was  no 
water,  and  he  could  do  nothing  during  the  flood.  Under  the  perennial 
S3'stem  some  kind  of  farm  work  is  in  progress  throughout  the  year, 
and  if  the  farmer  is  taken  away  from  his  land  the  results  are  as  serious 
to  the  taxgatherer  as  to  him.  Perennial  canals  require  a  great  deal 
more  labor  to  keep  them  in  repair  than  do  the  ancient  inundation 
canals.  This  is  because  the  canals  are  deeper  and  carr}^  water  through- 
out the  3'ear.  The  whole  agricultural  population  was  formerly 
employed  a  large  part  of  the  year  in  keeping  these  canals  in  condition, 
although  but  a  small  portion  of  the  people  so  engaged  w^ere  directly 
interested  in  them.  So  long  had  the  system  been  in  force  in  Egypt 
that  immediate  reform  was  impossible.  The  increased  security'  to  land 
titles  did  nmch  toward  bringing  about  a  change  for  the  better.  The 
first  khedival  decree  relating  to  the  corvee  appeared  in  January,  1881. 

Articles  1  to  -t  of  this  decree  prescribe  what  works  shall  be  main- 
tained b}^  the  public. 

Article  5  jjrovides  that  all  male  inhabitants  of  the  countr}',  of  sound 
health,  between  the  ages  of  15  and  5U  3'ears,  with  the  exception  of 
those  indicated  in  the  following  section,  are  subject  to  corvee  dut\\ 

Article  6:  The  following  persons  are  exempt  from  corvee  dut}^:  Law 
students  of  the  Koran;  those  w^ho  recite  the  Koran;  persons  engaged 
in  teaching;  students  of  the  mosques  and  schools;  persons  attached  to 
charitable  institutions,  shrines,  convents,  and  hospitals;  those  in  the 
service  of  the  mosques,  tombs,  and  holy  places  having  distinct  offices; 
priests,  monks,  rabbis,  and  persons  attached  to  the  service  of  churches, 
temples,  cemeteries  of  the  various  sects  and  holding  permanent  posi- 
tions; people  having  professions  or  trades  who  pay  professional  taxes 
and  who  exercise  their  calling;  also  fishermen  and  boatmen;  the 
watchmen  of  the  villages. 

Article  7:  Every  person  who  is  subject  to  corvee  dut\'  can  redeem 
himself  by  furnishing  a  substitute.  The  following  persons  can  redeem 
themselves  by  a  payment  in  cash:  Inhabitants  of  isolated  settlements 
who  have  been  included  in  the  census;  Bedouins  who  own  land  or  cul- 
tivate the  same  and  who  have  heretofore  been  exempt  from  such  labor; 
the  inhabitants  of  the  villages  working  on  the  state  domain  and  the 


79 

Daira  Sanieh  in  Lower  Egypt,  wherever  these  adniinistrations  have 
more  than  lUO  acres,  on  the  condition  that  the  land  is  not  rented  and 
that  the  ransomed  men  shall  devote  their  labor  to  cultivation.  Forced 
labor  is  obligatory  from  the  inhabitants  of  the  villages  where  rice  is 
the  predominating  crop,  or  where  the  land  tax  is  adjusted  as  it  is  for 
such  villao-es.  but  the  corvee  dutv  of  such  inhabitants  will  be  onlv  half 
of  that  required  from  the  inhabitants  of  other  villages. 

Articles:  Where  a  cash  payment  is  permitted  in  lieu  of  services, 
about  >^(]  is  required  in  Lower  Egypt  and  about  ^4  in  Upper  Egypt. 
After  the  year  1882  the  amount  of  this  payment  shall  be  lixed  annually, 
and  the  minister  of  public  works  shall  so  notify  the  governors  of  the 
provinces  one  month  before  the  conmiencement  of  work.  The  condi- 
tions which  shall  affect  the  amount  of  this  payment  are  the  quantity  of 
material  to  be  moved  and  the  time  when  it  is  necessary  to  perform 
the  work. 

Article  9:  The  minister  of  public  works  can,  when  he  deems  it  nec- 
essary, withdraw  the  privilege  of  the  payment  of  cash  instead  of  labor 
as  provided  for  in  article  T,  or  he  can  substitute  machine  work  for 
hand  labor. 

Article  lU:  The  money  received  in  each  province  from  this  source 
will  be  entered  in  a  special  register  and  deposited  in  the  treasury-  of 
the  province  and  kept  at  the  disposal  of  the  minister  of  public  works. 
These  sum.s  can  be  spent  onlv  on  works  which  have  for  their  object 
reduction  or  suppression  of  the  corvee. 

Article  11:  It  is  the  duty  of  the  minister  of  the  interior  to  collect 
and  keep  in  service  those  subject  to  the  corvee. 

The  khedival  decree  issued  in  1882  permitted  the  Arab  farmers  to 
redeem  themselves  from  the  corvee  by  a  cash  payment,  and  the  same 
decree  frees  the  Bedouins  from  this  service  entireh\  Lender  the  pro- 
visions of  this  decree  those  having  political  influence  gradualW  secured 
relief  from  ])oth  the  payment  and  the  corvee  service  and  the  whole 
burden  fell  on  the  poorer  classes.  Earh^  in  1885  some  of  the  fellaheen 
of  one  of  the  districts  applied  for  an  investigation  to  be  made  of  the 
corvee  condition^.  It  was  found  in  an  examination  of  the  corvee  serv- 
ice from  145, 0(H)  acres  that  the  entire  number  of  men  furnished  came 
from  33,000  acres.  The  state  lands  included  within  this  district 
redeemed  about  half  of  the  renters,  and  the  large  landholders,  who 
own  about  59,000  acres,  paid  nothing  and  furnished  no  labor.  . 

The  partial  reconstruction  of  the  barrage  in  1885  brought  about  the 
first  real  relief  to  the  fellaheen.  This  structure  not  only  furnished 
water  for  the  farmer  during  the  period  of  low  Nile,  but  also  enabled 
the  discharge  to  be  regulated  in  such  a  way  as  to  reduce  the  volumes  of 
silt  which  were  annually  deposited.  In  addition  to  this  relief  $150,000 
was  spent  m  paying  those  who  worked  on  certain  canals.  This  was  an 
experiment  to  see  whether  it  was  possible  to  relieve  or  wholh^do  awa\^ 
with  forced  labor.     The  work  was  entirely  successful.     Not  onl}'  were 


80 

the  inhabitants  better  satisfied  to  carry  it  on.  but  the  work  was  better 
done,  and  the  money  reverted  to  those  who  bore  the  burden  of  the 
tax.  This  kind  of  Avork  is  carried  on  by  contract,  and  each  person  is 
paid  for  the  vohrnie  of  earth  he  removes.  Owing  to  the  improved 
qualit}^  of  hand  labor  it  was  possible  to  clean  canals  in  which  1:^5,000 
cubic  3'ards  of  silt  had  deposited.  At  first  it  was  estimated  that 
machinery  Avould  have  to  ))e  employed  when  the  volume  exceeded 
50,000  cubic  yards  for  any  one  canal.  In  188(5  the  first  systematic 
work  of  cleaning  the  canals  was  undertaken  by  the  government,  and 
this  was  gradually  extended  until  all  earthwork  was  carried  on  with- 
out the  employment  of  the  corvee.  The  cost  of  cleaning  the  canals 
amounts  to  nearly  '$2,000,000  per  year.  While  this  is  a  serious  drain 
on  the  treasmy  of  the  country,  yet  it  is  a  long  step  in  advance  of  the 
conditions  which  existed  prior  to  the  initiation  of  reform.  The  corvee 
is  still  called  out  to  watch  the  banks  of  the  Nile  during  high  water. 

A  number  of  decrees  have  been  issued  dealing  with  details  regulat- 
ing the  corA'ee  service,  but  they  are  comparatively  unimportant.  On 
December  19.  1889,  the  following  decree  was  rendered: 

We,  the  khedive  of  Egypt,  at  the  instance  of  our  conncil  of  niinistern  and  in  view 
of  the  deliberations  of  the  general  assembly,  decree: 
Article  1.  The  corvee  is  suppressed  throughout  Egypt. 

Article  2.  The  guardianship  and  charge  over  the  dikes  and  other  works,  as  Avell 
as  all  urgent  measures  in  case  of  danger  owing  to  the  rise  of  the  Nile,  shall  continue 
to  be  carried  out  at  the  expense  of  the  inhabitants. 

Article  3.  The  corvee  and  redemption  tax  are  replaced  by  the  establishment,  both 
on  Ushuri  and  Kharadji  lands,  of  a  special  tax  with  a  maximum  tax  of  80.214  per 
acre,  the  total  j^roduce  of  which  shall  not  exceed  $741,500  per  annum. 

The  assessment  of  this  tax  shall  be  made  by  a  further  decree  issued  on  i)roposal  of 
our  council  of  ministers,  after  consideration  by  the  legislative  council. 

Article  4,  The  produce  of  this  special  tax  shall,  with  the  authority  of  the  com- 
missioners of  the  debt,  be  employed  under  the  conditions  prescribed  by  our  decree 
of  the  14th  of  June,  1889,  for  the  sum  of  $1,235,750  provided  for  in  the  said  decree. 
Article  5.  Our  ministers  of  finance  and  public  works  are  charged,  in  so  far  as  they 
are  each  concerned,  with  the  execution  of  the  present  decree. 
Done  at  the  palace  of  Abdiii  the  19th  of  December,  1889. 

(Signed)  Mehemet  Tewfik. 

By  the  Khedive: 

The  President  of  the  Council  of  Minister.*. 
The  Minister  of  Finance. 

(Signed)  Riaz. 

The  ^linister  of  Public  Works. 

(Signed)  Mohamed  Zeki. 

]\Iany  preliminar}^  steps  were  necessary  before  this  tinal  decree  could 
be  rendered.  Some  of  the  foreign  powers  objected  to  increasing  tax- 
ation for  the  purpose  of  relieving  the  fellaheen  in  this  work.  The 
French  were  particularly  active  in  this  opposition.  ^ 

Although  to-day  the  fellah  is  not  imposed  upon  as  he  was  twenty 
years  ago.  yet  he  does  not  enjoy  liberty  as  we  understand  it.  The 
work  of  watching  the  Nile  levees  during  high  water  results  in  consid- 


81 

erable  hardship  to  the  farmer.  The  following  table  shows  the  number 
of  men  called  out  during  the  twenty  years  from  1880  to  1899, 
inclusive: 

Xumher  of  men  called  on  for  corvee  duti/,  18^^0-1899. 


Year. 


Number  ,-  Number'  y  Number  y  Number 

of  men.  ^^^^-        .  of  men.  ^'^*^^-  of  men.  ^  ^*^^-  of  men. 


1880- 
1881. 
1882. 
1883. 
1884. 


165,105   1889 '   49,904 


1890 

48.488 

1891 

...   44,962 

1892 

84,  391 

1893 

32,752 

1894 

49. 488 

110,385   1885 125,936   1890 48.488   1895 36.782 

281,283  i  1886 95.093 

262,923  I  1887 ■   87,120 

202,6.50   1888 58,788 


1896 25.794 

1897 11.069 


1898 34,770 

1899 17.564 


The  number  of  men  needed  in  thi.s  work  depends  upon  the  stage  of 
the  Nile  during  flood.  The  higher  the  flood  the  more  men  are  required 
to  watch  the  banks  during  this  critical  period.  The  diflerence  between 
this  work  and  the  cleaning  of  canals  is  that  those  emplo\-ed  in  the  latter 
service  receive  compensation  flxed  bv  the  government.  Service  is 
compulsoiy  in  both  cases.  If  an  accident  occurs  to  the  government 
railway  line,  men  are  forced  to  leave  their  homes  and  put  it  in  repair, 
and  are  paid  for  their  services  as  the  government  may  deem  sufiicient. 
It  can  not  be  said,  therefore,  that  forced  labor  has  been  abolished. 
Those  who  are  best  acquainted  with  the  conditions  admit  that  the  sys- 
tem has  simply  been  modifled  and  reformed. 

CONCLUSIONS. 

The  climate  of  Egypt  being  mild,  the  needs  of  the  people  are  easily 
satisfied:  the  population  is  dense  and  the  individual  holdings  of  land 
are  small.  Labor  is  cheap,  enabling  much  to  be  accomplished  by  the  use 
of  crude  implements  which  could  be  performed  profltably  in  America 
only  by  the  employment  of  modern  machinery.  The  irrigation  canals 
of  Egpyt  convey  water  to  the  farms,  but  the  irrigator  must  raise 
the  water  for  his  fields.  He  has  few  other  duties  which  demand  his 
time  and  energy  during  the  growing  season,  and  therefore  can  use 
with  profit  machinery  which  requires  a  large  expenditure  of  labor  but 
little  expenditure  of  money.  In  lifting  water  from  the  Nile  the 
Egyptian  deals  with  the  same  obstacles  as  the  irrigator  in  many  locali- 
ties in  the  West  where  water  can  be  secured  at  depths  ranging  from 
10  to  25  feet,  but  there  the  resemlilance  ceases.  The  standard  of  liv- 
ing of  the  American  irrigator  is  higher,  his  farm  is  larger,  and  the 
returns  from  an  acre  are  less.  He  can  not  adopt  water-raising  devices 
of  low  efficiency  like  the  shaduf  or  natali.  The  hoe.  practically  the 
onlv  tool  used  in  distributing  water  over  the  fields  in  Egypt,  has  no 
meiit  to  the  American  farmer.  We  can  not,  therefore,  learn  much 
from  the  Egyptian  irrigator. 

Many  of  the  irrigation  structures  of  Egypt  are  models  of  their  kind. 

The  barrage  below  Cairo  is  one  of  the  most  interestino-  dams  in  the 

world.     Its  architecture  reflects  some  of  the  recent  political  struggles 

in   Egypt.     The  towers  which    embellish  jthe  dam  should  be  classed 

27752— No.  130—03 0 


82 

with  the  ruins  bequeathed  to  the  modern  world  ])y  ancient  Eo-ypt. 
The  barrage  is  a  monument  to  the  French  engineers,  while  the  fortifi- 
cations along  it  remind  us  that  it  was  only  a  few  years  ago  that  the 
caprice  of  the  khedive  overshadowed  the  designs  of  the  engineer. 
The  Assiut  dam  follows  the  general  plan  of  the  barrage  below  Cairo. 
The  design  of  the  dam  at  Assuan  is  new  in  Egypt  as  well  as  in  the 
AYorld.  It  marks  the  beginning  of  a  great  reservoir  system  which 
will  ultimately  control  the  waters  of  the  Nile  and  furnish  a  supply  to 
every  arable  district  of  Egypt.  The  head  gates,  waste  gates,  regu- 
lators, and  bridges  of  the  larger  canals  will  always  be  objects  of  stud}^ 
for  irrigation  engineers  of  other  countries. 

The  excellence  of  the  recent  irrigation  works  of  Eg3-pt  is  beyond 
question.  The  fame  of  the  dam  at  Assuan  has  l)een  heralded  throughout 
the  civilized  world;  Init  such  works  are  costh\  Before  the  distributary 
systems  are  perfected  the  cost  of  the  system  supplied  by  the  Assuan 
reservoir  Avill  exceed  !^5T  per  acre  of  land  irrigated.  Such  an  outlay 
is  not  at  present  profitable  in  the  United  States.  It  is  advisable, 
nevertheless,  for  us  to  study  the  larger  irrigation  works  of  Egypt, 
because  it  may  be  possible  for  American  engineers  to  modif}'  these 
designs  to  suit  the  needs  of  irrigation  here.  Many  of  the  smaller 
details  of  construction  can  be  readily  introduced 

The  Nile  is  an  easy  stream  to  divide,  hence  laws  for  the  economical 
distribution  of  water  are  not  so  severely  tested  as  the}^  will  be  on  the 
streams  of  the  arid  West.  AVater  is  diverted  onlv  at  the  lower  end  of 
the  Nile,  and  not  from  all  its  ramifying  tributaries,  as  is  the  case  on  the 
Missouri  and  Colorado.  In  addition,  Eg^^pt  is  one  of  the  few  countries 
where  the  water  supply  can  be  made  adequate  for  the  needs  of  all  by 
storage.  This  will  not  be  possible  in  the  United  States  except  under 
rare  conditions,  where  the  area  of  irrigal)le  land  along  a  river  afiord- 
ing  the  supph'  is  comparatively  limited.  In  Egypt  the  demand  for 
land  will  in  a  few  years  exceed  the  demand  for  water.  With  us  the 
area  of  irrigable  land  will  ultimately  be  limited  by  the  water  supply. 

The  Egyptian  irrigation  law  aims  to  bring  about  such  a  distribution 
of  the  water  of  the  Nile  that  the  country'  as  a  whole  will  produce  the 
largest  returns  and  the  treasury  receipts  be  the  greatest.  The  irriga- 
tion laws  of  the  AA' ester n  States  of  the  United  States  are  framed  to 
protect  the  individual  farmer,  and  not  for  the  purpose  of  producing 
revenue.  This  fundamental  difference  in  the  objects  to  l)e  attained 
makes  Eg^-pt's  administrative  system  inapplicable  to  this  country. 
There  does  not  seem  to  be  any  reason  for  changing  our  policy.  On 
the  contrary,  it  seems  wise  that  our  irrigation  administration  should 
promote  the  prosperity  of  the  water  user  as  far  as  practicable,  so  that 
we  may  say  in  the  words  of  Ameni,  as  inscribed  on  his  torn!)  at  Beni 
Hassan.  50  miles  above  Cairo,  "And  behold,  when  the  inundation  was 
great,  and  the  owners  of  the  land  became  rich  thereby.  I  laid  no 
additional  tax  upon  the  tields." 


APPEXniCES 


Appendix  1 


Note. — The  laws  as  given  in  these  appendices  are  free  translations  oi  the  texts,  as 
given  in  La  Legislation  en  Matiere  Immobiliere  en  Egypte.  Le  Caire.  Imprimerie, 
Xationale,  1901. 

POWERS  OF  THE  GOVERNORS  AND  INSPECTORS  OF  IRRIGATION. 

[Regulation  of  December.  18S-5.  fixiutr  the  relation  between  the  governors  and  inspectors  of  irrigation.] 

(1 )  It  is  the  duty  of  the  governor  to  see  that  a  just  distribution  of  the  water  is  made 
in  the  various  districts  composing  his  province.  He  will  make  known  at  an  oppor- 
tune time  to  the  irrigation  inspectors  appointe«l  by  the  minister  of  public  works  the 
places  where  more  water  is  needed  and  at  what  times,  and  hear  the  complaints  on 
such  subjects  as  may  be  addressed  to  him  by  the  chiefs  of  the  villages. 

(2)  It  is  the  duty  of  the  inspectors  to  satisfy  all  demands  as  far  as  possible,  and 
where  they  can  not  for  any  reason  carry  out  these  instructions  they  shall  report  the 
matter  to  the  governor  and  conmiunicate  with  the  minister  of  public  works.  The 
governor  on  his  part  shall  inform  the  minister  of  th^  interior,  and  the  two  ministers 
shall  together  take  the  matter  under  consideration  and,  if  necessary,  report  it  to  the 
council. 

At  the  beginning  of  each  year  the  governor,  with  the  agricultural  council,  which  is 
assisted  by  the  engineers,  shall  specify  in  the  ordinary  manner  the  various  works 
which  are  to  be  executed  and  shall  determine  the  number  of  the  c<^rvee  necessary  for 
cleaning  canals  and  for  construction. 

In  order  that  the  governor  may  be  al)le  to  undertake  this  work  with  full  knowle<lge 
of  the  facts,  the  chief  engineer  shall  report  to  him  his  estimates  and  calculations  some 
days  before  the  meeting  of  the  agricultural  council. 

The  governor  shall  put  himself  in  direct  communication  with  the  chief  engineer  on 
all  questions  which  may  arise  during  the  course  of  the  year.  If  he  does  not  obtain 
sati.^faction  he  may  appeal  to  the  inspector,  and.  if  necessary,  to  the  minister  of  the 
interior. 

(3)  The  technical  control  of  the  distribution  of  water,  the  partial  or  complete 
closing  of  gates,  belong  wholly  to  the  inspectors,  and  nothing  may  be  done  without 
their  written  orders.  Consequently,  if  the  governor  believes  that  it  Mould  be  better 
to  partially  open  or  close  any  gate  he  nmst  address  the  chief  engineer,  and,  if  neces- 
sary, the  inspector,  giving  his  reasons  and  all  possible  evidence.  The  engineer  and 
inspector  may  be  able  to  approve  and  act  accordingly.  If  not,  they  must  explain  to 
the  governor  what  facts  and  evidence  the  minister  of  the  interior  and  the  minister  of 
public  works  should  have  in  ca.se  the  question  is  appealed  to  them. 

(4)  During  high  water  in  the  Xile,  or  whenever  necessary  to  avoid  disaster,  and 
when  the  governor  does  not  have  near  him  an  engineer  whom  he  may  consult,  it  is 
the  duty  of  the  governor  to  do  whatever  in  his  judgment  may  be  necessary,  whether 
to  throw  stones  in  the  water  or  to  use  anv  other  means  for  adding  to  the  securitv  of 


84 

irrigation  works.  In  such  cases  the  governor  should  telegraph  to  the  inspector 
immediately,  recjuesting  the  aid  of  the  chief  engineer. 

If  the  engineer  of  the  province  l)e  present,  he,  and  not  the  governor,  directs  what 
measures  to  adopt,  and  he  is  held  responsible  for  the  same. 

If,  however,  the  governor  gives  orders  contrary  to  those  of  the  local  engineer,  the 
latter  must  ol^ey,  but  at  the  same  time  give  notice  that  discord  exists,  after  which 
the  governor  is  responsible  for  what  takes  place. 

The  inspector  shall  arrange  matters  so  that  the  governor  may  be  accompanied  as 
often  as  possible  in  his  journeys  along  the  levees  and  canals  during  high  water  by 
the  chief  engineer  or  some  one  delegated  by  him. 

(5)  The  engineers  are  under  the  minister  of  public  works,  but  they  owe  to  the 
governor  the  respect  due  to  the  principal  representative  of  the  government  in  the 
province.  They  should  respond  to  his  demands  and  give  him  all  the  information  he 
may  desire.  When  the  governor  has  reason  to  believe  that  the  local  engineer  acts 
without  or  l^yond  the  orders  of  the  inspector  in  that  which  concerns  the  making  of 
regulations  relative  to  the  use  of  water,  which  regulations  must  always  be  commu- 
nicated to  the  governor  and  published,  he  must  study  with  care  the  conduct  of  the 
engineer,  make  full  inquiries  regarding  his  acts  as  well  as  the  acts  of  those  under 
his  orders,  and  shall  make  known  to  the  inspector  the  results  of  these  inquiries. 

(6)  No  new  work  may  he  undertaken  without  the  previous  sanction  of  the  council 
of  ministers.  Concerning  important  improvements  which  the  inspector  believes 
should  be  made  in  the  irrigation  or  drainage  of  a  region,  he  must  act  in  concert  with 
the  governor,  and  in  all  cases  they  must  inform  the  minister  of  the  interior  and  the 
minister  of  public  works,  who  shall  be  members  of  the  council  of  ministers. 

In  public  improvements  and  reforms  of  less  importance  it  is  the  duty  of  the  inspect- 
ors to  personally  inform  the  governor  regarding  Avhat  they  propose  to  do,  the  effects 
of  the  proposed  changes,  and  the  obstacles  which  they  will  have  to  overcome.  Noti- 
fication in  writing,  either  English  or  Arabic,  is  not  sufficient  for  this,  and  the  inspect- 
ors must  never  fail  to  explain  tfieir  ideas  at  least  by  maps  and  diagrams.  Because 
of  his  special  knowledge  of  the  agricultural  interests  the  governor  can  and  should 
indicate  how  the  proposed  work  might  occasion  loss  or  damage  to  private  or  public 
property.     The  two  ministers  and  the  council  must  be  informed  also. 

(7)  The  number  of  the  corvee,  as  l>efore  stated,  is  determined  by  the  agricultural 
council.  The  governor  must  decide  as  to  the  number  of  men  who  should  be  included 
in  the  corvee,  and  agree  with  the  engineer  as  to  the  order  in  which  the  canals  should 
be  cleaned  and  the  time  for  said  work. 

The  governor  is  not  to  Ix"  called  upon  for  the  technical  execution  of  the  work;  the 
chief  engineer  is  alone  answeraVjle  and  bears  all  responsibility  for  the  completed  work. 

The  governor  may,  should  there  be  occasion  therefor,  call  upon  the  chief  engineer 
to  permit  those  of  the  corvee  who  have  finished  their  work  to  return  home. 

(8)  When,  for  any  reason,  the  inspector  desires  to  close  a  canal  for  more  than  four- 
teen days,  he  must  inform  the  governor  of  his  intention  as  soon  as  possible,  so  that 
the  latter  may  present  his  objections  if  he  has  any. 

(9)  Trrigation  vorH. — Irrigation  works  may  be  divided  into  two  classes.  The  fii-st 
class  includes  those  for  which  bids  are  advertised  in  the  official  journal,  which  Ijids 
are  submitted  under  the  prevailing  rules  of  the  minister  of  public  works.  These 
works  comprise  all  excavation  requiring  more  than  a  thousand  men  \>er  day,  all 
masonry  work  costing  more  than  £200  ($974),  and  all  work  in  which  machinery  is 
necessary. 

In  work  of  this  class  the  governor  will  not  l)e  consulted  as  to  the  choice  of  the 
contractor,  but  he  shall  be  informed  regarding  the  nature  of  the  contract.  During 
the  execution  of  the  work  he  mu.«t.  if  he  deems  necessary,  call  the  attention  of  the 
engineer  to  the  manner  in  which  the  contractor  is  executing  the  work. 


85 

(^10")  The  second  clags  covers  the  excavation  and  cleaning  of  small  canals,  small 
works  where  masonry  is  not  needed,  and  repair  of  masonry  works.  Contractors 
shall  submit  bids  to  the  governor  for  work  of  this  class.  The  inspect<jr  shall  siiKv 
mit  to  the  governor  a  copy  of  the  specitications.  The  bids  shall  l^e  oi>ened  and  a 
contractor  chosen  to  the  satisfaction  of  both  the  governor  and  the  inspector  or  his 
assistant.  It  is  not  necessary  to  accept  the  lowest  bid.  In  work  of  this  class  the 
governor  must  always  judge  as  to  the  reliability  of  the  bidders.  The  governor 
should,  if  possible,  favor  local  contractors. 

CANAIiS  AND  LEVEES. 

[Decree  of  Febru.Hry  2"J.  1S94.  (.oncerninsr  regulations  reirardingeanals  and  levees.] 
PUBLIC    CANALS    AND    LEVEES. 

Akticle  1.  The  word  "canal"  refei^s  to  a  water  coui-se  which  serves  for  the  entire 
or  partial  irrigation  of  the  lands  of  more  than  two  villages.  All  ranals  of  this  kind 
are  considered  public  property.  They  are  generally  constructed  an<i  maintained  at 
government  exj^ense  and  are  a  part  of  the  public  domain. 

The  use  and  occupation  of  l>anks  of  canals  are  permitted  ouly  under  certain 
restrictions  laid  down  in  article  21  of  this  decree. 

PRIVATE    DITCHE>. 

Article  2.  By  the  word  ' '  rigole '  *  is  understood  a  water  course  which  serves  for  the 
irrigation  of  the  land  of  one  or  two  villages  or  of  land  l^elonging  to  one  person  or  to 
a  single  family  living  in  one  community  even  if  belonging  to  several  villages. 

All  rigoles  are  considered  private  property.  The  cost  of  construction  and  mainte- 
nance is  borne  by  those  who  derive  profit  from  the  works. 

In  case  of  delay  in  cleaning  these  works  the  government  may  j>erform  the  work 
at  the  expense  of  the  proprietors.  The  sum  thus  sj^nt  will  l>e  distributed  by  the 
governor  in  proportion  to  the  taxes  paid  by  each,  and  it  will  be  collected  in  con- 
formity with  the  provisions  of  the  decree  of  ^Nlarch  25,  18S0. 

However,  if  a  ditch  serves  for  the  irrigation  of  1,000  acres  belonging  to  one  <>r 
several  persons  it  can  always,  ujwn  reijuest  of  the  owners,  be  considered  a  public 
waterway. 

DKAIXS. 

Artule  3.  The  word  "drain"  indicates  a  channel  in  the  earth  fr.r  carrying  away 
rain  water,  drainage  water,  or  water  fr«:>m  irrigated  fields. 

A  dra.in  is  public  when  it  serves  more  than  two  villages;  private  when  it  serves  one 
or  two  only,  unless  it  drains  a  surface  of  more  than  2, •300  acres  in  area,  when  it  is 
considered  a  public  work,  although  it  may  be  situated  in  one  village. 

The  public  drains  are  maintained  by  the  government  and  the  private  drains  by 
the  parties  interested.  The  provisions  of  the  second  paragraph  of  the  preceding 
article  are  applicable  to  private  drains. 

WORKS  for  protection  aoainst  incndation. 

Article  4.  "Works  for  protection  against  jnimdaiion  "  are  levees,  transverse  and 
longitudinal  dikes,  and  all  structures  serving  to  protet-t  farms  and  villages  from  the 
overflow  of  water. 

These  works  are  onsiilereii  public  }'roi»erty  and  are  wholly  under  government 
control. 

Private  levees  up<ju  the  l^anks  of  the  Nile,  or  those  which  form  the  boumlaries  of 
the  basins  and  which  are  constructeil  by  the  owners,  must  be  maintained  at  the 
expense  of  those  benefited. 


86 

POWERS    OF    IRRIGATION-    INSPECTORS    AND    CHIEF    ENGINEERS. 

Article  5.  Irrigation  inspectors  are  the  representatives  of  the  minister  of  pubHc 
works  and  have  under  them  the  chief  engineer  and  all  those  in  the  irrigation  admin- 
istrative service.  Their  powers  and  tlieir  relations  to  the  governor  are  fixed  by  the 
regulations  of  December  31,  1885. 

PUBLIC    WORKS   ox    PRIVATE    LAND. 

Article  6.  The  owner  of  land  crossed  by  a  public  ditch,  drain,  or  other  work  des- 
tined to  serve  the  lands  of  neighbors  can  not,  without  the  written  consent  of  the 
owners  of  the  lands  served,  till  the  land  occupied  by  such  works  in  such  a  way  as  to 
destroy  the  usefulness  of  the  works. 

STOPPING    OF    WATER-RAISINCi    MACHINES    AND    CLOSIN(;    OF   CANALS. 

Article  7.  No  indemnity  can  be  claimed  from  the  government  for  loss  occasioned 
by  a  reduction  or  stoppage  of  the  flow  of  water  in  a  canal  resulting  from  extreme 
necessity  or  having  for  its  object  repairs  or  changes  recognized  to  be  necessary,  or  by 
any  measure  which  the  irrigation  inspector  may  deem  necessary  in  order  to  maintain 
the  volume  or  regulate  the  flow  of  water — such,  as  for  example,  the  closing  of  a  canal 
or  the  suspension  of  irrigation  for  a  certain  number  of  days  on  all  or  a  part  of  a 
canal,  so  that  other  places  in  greater  need  of  water  may  receive  it. 

In  case  it  may  be  necessary  to  clean  or  repair  a  canal  the  irrigation  inspector, 
through  his  agent,  the  chief  engineer  of  the  province,  shall  determine  when  water 
may  best  be  dispensed  with  for  irrigation  that  these  operations  may  be  carried  on. 
However,  having  commenced  any  work  of  this  kind,  the  irrigation  inspector  should 
act  in  accord  with  the  governor,  as  required  by  the  provisions  of  the  regulations  of 
December  31,  1885,  fixing  the  powers  and  relations  of  inspectors  of  irrigation  and 
governors  of  provinces. 

The  governor  should  notify  and  consult  those  interested  or  their  legal  representa- 
tives. 

CONSTRrCTIO»N    OF    PRIVATE    DITCHES. 

Article  8.  If  the  citizens  of  a  village  desire  to  construct  a  canal  on  their  own 
lands  for  their  own  use  they  shall  apply  to  the  governor.  He  will  communicate  the 
application  to  the  inspector  of  irrigation,  accompanying  it  by  his  recommendations 
and  advice,  and  if  the  inspector  agrees,  the  governor  will  approve  or  reject  the  appli- 
cation as  the  circumstances  may  warrant. 

The  ditch  thus  authorized  shall  be  constructed  at  the  expense  of  the  apj)licants 
and  their  associates. 

However,  privileges  so  extended  shall  not  permit  the  parties  to  debar  neighboring 
property  owners  from  utilizing  the  ditch  for  the  irrigation  of  their  lands,  even  during 
low  water,  after  the  original  applicants  shall  have  received  what  they  need  for  their 
own  lands.  These  neighbors  shall  in  such  cases  become  contributors  toward  the 
cost  of  construction  and  maintenance  in  proportion  to  the  extent  to  which  their 
lands  may  be  benefited  by  the  ditch. 

DITCHES   THROIGH    LANDS    OF    PERSONS    NOT    BENEFITED. 

Article  9.  AVhen  a  property  owner  finds  that,  without  the  construction  of  a  ditch 
upon  land  not  belonging  to  him  or  not  served  by  a  Nili  ^'  canal  or  by  a  ditch  already 
constructed  on  the  property  of  others,  it  is  impossible  for  him  to  irrigate  his  own 
land,  on  account  of  his  being  unaV)le  to  arrive  at  an  amicable  agreement  with  the 
proprietors  of  the  private  works  or  their  legal  representatives,  he  may  make  a  state- 
ment of  the  (rase  to  the  governor,  who  will  communicate  the  same  to  the  inspector  of 


«A  canal  which  flows  only  during  the  Nile  flood. 


87 

irrigation,  with  his  rec-ommendations  and  advice.  The  latter  will  then  exaraine  the 
situation,  on  the  ground,  and  will  give  his  decision  after  hearing  the  parties  interested 
or  their  legal  representatives,  should  such  appear.  The  chief  engineer  of  the  prov- 
ince or  liis  deputy  may  be  delegated  for  this  work. 

Fourteen  days'  notice  shall  be  given  as  to  tlie  day  and  hour  of  the  insi)ection. 
Such  notice  shall  be  given  either  to  the  owners  or  to  their  legal  representatives,  as 
the  case  may  be. 

But  if  the  ditch  or  Xili  canal  is  to  furnish  water  either  running  naturally  or  elevated 
by  a  machine,  and  the  property  owners  oppose  its  construction  because  it  may  injure 
the  land  it  traverses,  the  inspector  of  irrigation  shall  go  to  the  place  himself  and  base 
his  report  on  a  careful  survey. 

If  the  report  is  favorable  to  the  applicant,  and  the  governor,  after  having  acquainted 
himself  with  the  facts,  agrees  with  the  inspector,  a  decision  to  this  effect  shall  be 
rendered  by  the  inspector.  This  decision  shall  be  transmitted,  as  prescribed  by  law, 
to  the  opposing  parties.  The  latter  may,  within  fifteen  days  from  such  notice,  appeal 
to  the  minister  of  public  works,  whose  decision  shall  be  final. 

If  the  governor  and  inspector  of  irrigation  do  not  agree,  the  case  shall  be  submitted 
to  the  minister  of  public  Avorks.  The  applicant  must  always  pay  for  the  land  occu- 
pied by  the  new  ditch  and  the  delinquent  taxes  on  the  same;  also  indemnity  for  all 
damage  occasioned.  The  amount  to  be  paid  shall  be  fixed  l)y  the  commission  men- 
tioned in  article  27  of  this  decree. 

Article  10  of  the  decree  of  ]\Iarch  8,  1881,  is  hereV)y  repealed. 

IXSUFFICIEXT    SUPPLY    OF    WATER    IX    A    DITCH. 

Article  10.  An  irrigator  who  believes  that  he  does  not  have  sufficient  water  for 
his  purposes,  should  notify  the  governor,  who  should  in  turn  communicate  with  the 
inspector  of  irrigation,  accompanying  his  report  by  his  recommendation  and  such 
information  as  he  may  deem  necessary,  so  that  the  inspector  may  determine  whether 
or  not  the  ditch  which  irrigates  the  cultivated  land  has  sufficient  capacity,  and  as  to 
whether  it  should  be  enlarged.  The  inspector  will  base  his  judgment  on  the  extent 
of  irrigated  land  and  the  character  of  the  irrigated  crops. 

If  the  neighboring  property  holders  object  to  the  enlargement  of  the  ditch,  as  may 
be  recommended  by  the  inspector,  the  provisions  of  the  preceding  article  are  to  be 
observed,  and  if  the  enlargement  is  for  the.  passage  of  summer  irrigation  water  the 
regulation  set  forth  in  paragraphs  2,  3,  and  4  of  article  9  shall  apply. 

EXCHANGE    OF    DITCHES. 

Article  11.  The  rules  and  forms  prescribed  by  article  9  will  apply  also  where  a 
party  desires  to  irrigate  his  land  during  high  Xile  by  means  of  a  ditch  other  than  the 
one  which  ordinarily  serves  him,  l)ut  during  low  water  no  exchange  of  ditches  will 
be  permitted  without  the  consent  of  the  parties  owning  the  land  through  which  the 
new  ditch  would  pass. 

(  OXSTRUCTIOX    OF    LATERALS,    OR    IXSTALLATIOX    OF    W ATER-RAISIXCi    DEVICES    OX    CAXALS. 

Article  12.  If  a  party  desires  to  build  a  lateral  gate,  or-a  sakiyeh,  or  other  elevat- 
ing machine  on  a  canal  to  irrigate  the  land  bordering  the  same,  he  must  submit  his 
request  to  the  governor,  who  will  communicate  it,  accompanied  by  his  recommenda- 
tions and  advice,  to  the  inspector  of  irrigation;  the  latter  will  refer  the  matter  to  the 
thief  engineer  of  the  province,  who,  in  the  case  of  the  sakiyeh,  if  he  approves  the 
request,  will  furnish  the  necessary  authorization,  but  if  it  concerns  a  lateral  will 
return  the  papers  to  the  inspector  for  his  approval. 

In  all  cases  a  copy  of  the  authorization  shall  be  transmitted  to  the  governor, 
together  with  a  statement  that  the  discharge  of  the  canal  is  sufficient  to  supply  the 


88 

lateral  or  the  land  to  be  watered  by  the  sakiyeh  without  injury  to  those  using  water 
from  the  same  canal  below. 

The  chief  engineer  shall  first  require  the  applicant  to  agree  to  pay  all  expenses 
incident  to  and  judged  necessary  for  the  regulation  of  the  flow  of  water  into  the 
lateral  and  the  maintenance  of  the  banks  of  the  canal  in  good  condition.  He  shall 
designate  the  location  of  the  lateral  or  sakiyeh. 

Regulations  for  establishing  fixed  or  portable  elevating  machines  operated  l)y 
steam,  wind,  or  water  power  are  set  forth  in  the  decree  of  ^larch  8,  1881. 

It  will  not  be  allowable  in  any  case  to  install  a  sakiyeh  or  a  tabout  without  first 
securing  a  permit.     This  permit  will  be  furnished  free  of  charge. 

CLOSING    A    DITCH    TO    PREVENT    IX.IURY    TO    AD.IACENT    LANDS. 

Article  13.  "When,  upon  the  claim  of  the  owners  interested  or  their  legal  repre- 
sentatives, the  inspector  of  irrigation  finds  that  a  ditch  is  useless  for  irrigation,  an 
obstacle  to  the  drainage  of  bordering  lands,  that  it  absorbs  water  from  bordering 
lands  or  loses  it  in  transit,  or,  in  fact,  that  it  is  a  detriment  to  agriculture  in  any 
way,  he  should,  after  consulting  the  governor  and  after  the  latter  has  heard  the 
interested  parties,  communicate  his  recommendations  to  the  minister  of  public 
works,  who  will  order  the  canal  to  be  closed  at  the  end  of  the  harvest  and  will  per- 
mit the  adjoining  property  holders  to  fill  it  up  if  it  be  shown  that  the  land  irrigated 
by  the  ditch  can  be  watered  from  another  without  injuring  lands  or  agriculture  in 
any  way.  The  tract  of  land  occupied  by  the  ditch  thus  filled  in  shall  l)e  subject  to 
the  laws  relating  to  such  land. 

increasing  or  diminishinct  the  size  (jf  the  head  gate  of  a  ditch  or  changing 
the  level  of  the  bottom  of  the  same. 

Article  14.  If  the  inspector  of  irrigation  l)elieves  that  a  head  gate  of  a  ditch  is  too 
large  or  that  its  flow  permits  the  passage  of  a  volume  of  water  in  excess  of  that  needed 
by  the  land  irrigated  by  the  ditch,  lie  should  so  inform  the  governor,  who  will  invite 
the  i)arties  interested,  or  their  legal  representatives,  to  meet  him  on  a  certain  day. 
After  having  the  opinion  of  the  inspector  stated  to  them,  they  will  fix,  if  they  approve 
the  recommendations  of  the  inspector,  the  time  when  changes  may  be  made.  The 
time  should  be  so  chosen  that  crops  will  not  need  irrigation  while  the  work  is  being 
performed. 

If  the  parties  object  to  the  recommendations  of  the  inspector,  the  case  will  Ije 
referred  by  the  governor  to  the  minister  of  public  works,  who  will  act  as  he  deems 
expedient  regarding  the  proposed  changes. 

If  it  is  necessary  to  enlarge  the  head  gate  of  a  ditch  or  to  lower  the  level  of  the 
bottom  of  the  same  so  that  sufficient  water  may  be  delivered,  a  certain  time  shall, 
in  like  manner,  be  fixed  for  the  alterations. 

In  all  Avork  of  this  nature  the  government  will  bear  the  expense. 

DRAINS    PASSIN(f    THROICH    LANDS    OF    PARTIES    NOT    KENEF'ITED. 

Article  15.  Where,  in  order  to  drain  his  farm,  a  i)arty  has  to  construct  a  channel 
across  the  land  of  another,  and  the  parties  can  not  come  to  an  amicable  agreement,  a 
complaint  should  be  presented  to  the  governor,  who  will  transmit  it,  accompanied 
with  his  recommendations  and  advice,  to  the  inspector  of  irrigation.  The  latter  will 
fix  the  course  of  the  drain;  the  governor  and  the  inspector  of  irrigation  shall  agree 
as  to  how  the  land  for  the  drainage  channel  shall  be  acquired.  If  they  fail  to  agree, 
the  case  shall  be  submitted  to  the  minister  of  public  works,  who,  if  he  approves  of 
the  construction  of  the  drain,  shall  take  such  steps  as  he  may  deem  necessary  to 
accomplish  the  Avork.  All  expenses  thus  incurred  and  the  indemnity  charged  must 
be  paid  by  the  parties  benefited.  The  construction  of  the  drain  shall  not  in  any  way 
injure  land  through  which  it  passes. 


89 

REPAIRING    A    DITCH    OR    DRAIN    TO    PREVENT    DAMAGE. 

Article  16.  A  party  whose  land  is  injured  by  a  ditch  or  drain  which  passes  through 
it,  whether  such  injury  be  due  to  a  partial  filling  in  of  the  ditch  or  drain  c^r  to  inse- 
cure construction  of  the  l>anks  of  the  same,  may  appeal  to  the  governor,  who,  after 
consulting  with  the  inspector  of  irrigation  or  with  the  chief  engineer  of  the  province, 
may  order  the  closing  of  the  ditch  or  drain  or  may  compel  the  owners  t^:*  clean  it  if 
he  deems  this  sufficient.  If  the  ditch  or  drain  is  essential  for  serving  other  lands. 
the  governor  will  require  the  owner  or  ownei-s  of  the  same  to  keep  it  in  good  condi- 
tion or  pay  damages  to  those  injured. 

CHANcaNG    THE     LOCATION    OK    A    DITCH     AVHICH     DOES    NOT    MEET    THE    DEMANDS    OF    THE 

IRRIGATORS    UNDER    IT. 

Article  17.  When  a  party  tinds  that  a  ditch  passing  through  his  land  makes  the 
irrigation  thereof  difficult,  and  he  desires  to  replace  the  channel  by  another,  he  may 
present  a  i>etition  to  the  governor,  who  will  transmit  it,  accompanied  by  his  recom- 
mendations and  advice,  to  the  inspector  of  irrigation,  who,  after  having  consulted 
with  the  governor,  will  authorize  the  closing  of  the  ditch  and  the  substitution  of 
another  at  the  expense  of  the  owner  of  the  land,  provided  that  the  new  ditch  is  in 
all  respects  as  good  as  the  first  and  fulfills  the  required  conditions,  and  that  the  origi- 
nal channel  l)e  not  closed  until  the  new  one  is  in  condition  to  be  used. 

But  if  the  ditch  concerns  only  the  owner  of  the  land  through  which  it  passes,  he 
may  replace  the  same  Viy  another  channel  upon  his  own  land  without  having  to  ol)rain 
a  permit. 

difficulties    WHICH    MAY    ARISE    IN    CONNECTION    WITH    THE    REPAIR    OF    DITCHE.-. 

Article  18.  If  any  party  disagrees  with  his  associates  as  to  whether  or  not  a  canal 
should  be  repaired,  and  so  notifies  the  governor,  the  latter  shall  delegate  the  chief 
engineer  to  make  investigation  on  the  ground  and  ascertain  the  facts.  If  it  is  con- 
sidered necessary  to  have  the  repairs  made,  the  governor  will  notify  the  interested 
parties  to  do  so. 

But  if  the  parties  are  found  to  be  unable  to  perform  the  necessary  work,  either  for 
want  of  lalxtr  or  money,  the  government  may  defray  the  expenses  necessary  for 
making  the  repairs  and  reimburse  itself  for  the  money  so  expended  by  numerous 
payments  from  those  benefited,  the  amounts  of  such  payments  to  he  fixed  by  the 
province  according  to  the  means  of  the  parties.  The  government  may  renounce  all 
claims  for  reimbursement  if  the  parties  are  recognized  as  being  poor. 

The  minister  of  the  interior  will  decide  as  to  whether  poverty  exists  or  not 

DE.STRUCT10N    OF    DIKES    OR    FILLING    IN    OF    DITCHES    OR    DRAINS. 

Article  19.  If  any  party  complains  to  the  governor  that  one  of  his  a.ssociates  in  an 
irrigation  ditch  or  drain  maintained  at  the  expense  of  those  interested,  under  the 
provisions  of  article  2,  has  destroyed  the  banks  or  has  filled  in  or  encroached  upon 
a  part  thereof,  the  governor  will  communicate  the  grievance,  accompanied  with  his 
recommendations  and  advice,  to  the  inspector  of  irrigation,  who  will  make  a  personal 
examination  of  the  ground  or  delegate  the  chief  engineer  of  the  province  to  do  so, 
after  having  given  notice  to  those  interested  at  least  fourteen  days  in  advance.  If  it 
is  found  that  dikes  have  been  destroyed  or  channels  filled  in,  the  inspector  will  make 
an  estimate  of  the  cost  of  reestablishing  the  works  as  they  formerly  stood,  and  the 
governor  will  require,  according  to  law,  the  offender  to  restore  the  property  he  has 
damaged.     In  case  he  refuses  he  will  be  obliged  to  bear  the  expense  of  such  repairs. 

In  case  an  owner  or  a  tenant  complains  t<)  the  governor  that  some  one  has  inter- 
cepted the  water  of  a  ditch  which  serves  him  for  irrigation,  the  governor,  as  stated 
in  the  foregoing  paragraph,  will  transmit  the  complaint,  accompanied  with  his  recom- 


90 

mendations  and  advice,  to  the  inspector  of  irrigation,  who  will  visit  the  i)lace  himself 
or  delegate  the  chief  engineer  of  the  province  to  do  so,  after  having  given  notice  to 
the  interested  parties  at  least  fourteen  days  in  advance;  if  it  is  found  that  the  com- 
plainant actually  irrigated  his  land  from  the  same  ditch  during  the  j^receding  year, 
the  inspector  of  irrigation  will  so  inform  the  governor,  who  will  take  such  lawful 
measures  as  may  be  necessary  in  order  that  the  water  may  flow  as  formerly,  and  that 
nothing  may  prevent  his  use  or  enjoyment  of  the  ditch.  The  governor  will  proceed 
immediately  in  the  execution  of  these  measures,  all  expenses  being  borne  by  the 
party  or  parties  who  intercepted  the  water.  These  expenses  may  be,  in  all  of  the 
above  cases,  recovered  in  the  manner  prescribed  in  the  decree  of  March  25,  1880. 

REMOVAL    OP^   TREES    PLANTED    ON    LEVEES    AND    ('ANAL    BANKS. 

Article  20.  If  it  is  found  that  trees  planted  on  levees,  or  banks,  or  footpaths  of 
canals  are  private  property,  and  are  obstacles  to  the  flow  of  the  water,  to  navigation, 
or  to  travel  on  the  banks,  the  inspector  of  irrigation  or  the  chief  engineer  of  the 
province  shall  order  the  owner  to  remove  them.  If  he  does  not  do  this  within  eight 
days,  the  inspector,  after  having  obtained  the  written  consent  of  the  governor,  shall 
break  or  cut  down  the  trees,  sell  the  wood,  and  remit  to  the  owner  the  receipts  from 
the  sale  after  deducting  expenses. 

CULTIVATION    OF   THE    BANKS    OR    BED    OF    A    CANAL. 

Article  21.  The  customary  practice  of  cultivating  the  sides  of  canals  not  reached 
by  the  water  and  the  beds  of  Nili  canals  will  be  permitted,  but  the  cultivator  of  such 
land  can  not  claim  any  damage  for  injury  occasioned  by  necessary  repair  or  clean- 
ing of  canals.  However,  the  inspectors  will  enjoin  the  agents  in  charge  of  the  work 
to  take  all  possible  precautions  to  prevent  loss  to  the  growing  crops. 

A  farmer  of  such  government  land  will  not  ])e  required  to  pay  rent  therefor  when 
the  crop  shall  have  been  damaged  as  a  result  of  necessary  public  work  executed 
before  harvest  time.  He  will,  however,  be  obliged  to  bear  the  loss  of  the  damaged 
crops. 

MAKING    A    ROAD    ALONG    A    CULTIVATED    BANK. 

Article  22.  If  it  is  necessary  to  use  for  a  public  highway  the  bank  of  a  canal  ordi- 
narily cultivated,  or  if  for  any  reason  it  is  desired  to  stop  cultivation  thereon,  the 
inspector  of  irrigation  will  request  the  governor  to  inform  the  farmer  that  cultivation 
will  not  be  permitted  after  the  crops  then  growing  shall  have  been  harvested.  If,  in 
spite  of  this  notification,  the  farmer  persists  in  using  the  bank  for  raising  crops  he 
will  have  no  claim  against  the  government  should  the  crops  be  destroyed  by  order 
of  the  governor.  But  if  the  land  along  the  bank  yields  revenue  through  taxation, 
the  government  must  remit  the  taxes  thereon  and  declare  it  a  public  highway. 

CONSTRI-CTION    OR    REPAIR    OF     PRIVATE    HEAD     GATES    ALONG    THE    BANKS    OF    THE    NILE 

OR    OF    A    CANAL. 

Article  23.  If  the  inspector  of  irrigation  finds  a  head  gate  on  the  bank  of  the  Nile 
or  of  a  canal,  or  any  other  works  of  protection,  badly  constructed  or  in  poor  condi- 
tion, or  in  any  way  a  source  of  danger  to  the  banks,  he  will  inform  the  governor, 
who  will  give  orders  to  the  owners  of  the  works  to  make  changes  or  repairs  within  a 
period  of  forty  days  during  the  winter  season.  If  the  owner  fails  to  do  this  the 
inspector  will  request  the  governor  to  set  aside  another  forty  days  for  the  accomplish- 
ment of  the  work. 

If,  after  the  second  notice  on  the  part  of  the  governor,  the  owner  of  the  head  gate 
refuses  to  make  the  changes  or  repairs,  the  governor  may  have  the  work  done  and 
the  expense  will  be  recovered  as  provided  in  the  decree  of  March  25,  1880. 


91 

If  the  construction  of  the  head  gate  is  not  finished  at  the  time  of  high  Nile,  the 
inspector  of  irrigation  may  order  its  immediate  closing  and  uhimate  removal  where 
the  security  of  the  l)anks  demand  it.  He  should  l)e  careful  to  inform  the  governor 
of  his  action,  and  to  conduct  the  water  in  some  other  way  than  through  this  head 
gate  to  the  hinds  usually  irrigated. 

WORKS    FOR    PROTECTION    AGAINST    INUNDATION. 

Article  24.  AVhen,  to  protect  the  country  from  inundation,  it  is  necessary  to  occupy 
a  tract  of  land  belonging  to  individuals,  whether  it  be  cultivated  or  not,  or  to  destroy 
a  building  of  any  kind  situated  on  the  said  land,  the  area  of  the  property  so  occupied 
will  be  measured,  and  the  valuation  will  be  fixed  by  the  commission  provided  for  in 
article  27.  After  having  heard  the  owner  and  the  inspector  of  irrigation  the  com- 
mission will  inform  the  governor  of  the  estimated  advantages  resulting  from  these 
works. 

The  sum  fixed  by  the  commission  will  be  paid  by  the  minister  of  public  works. 
Xo  appeal  can  be  taken  from  the  decision  of  the  commission. 

In  case  of  danger  during  high  Nile  the  governor  may  act  immediately.  He  may 
occupy  land,  whether  cultivated  or  not,  destroy  a  house  or  any  other  structure  in 
the  building  of  works  necessary  for  protection;  in  this  case  the  estimate  of  damages 
will  be  made  by  the  governor  or  his  deputy,  acting  with  the  chief  engineer  or  the  engi- 
neer of  the  district  and  four  prominent  persons,  two  of  whom  shall  be  chosen  by  the 
owners  of  the  property  and  two  by  the  governor.  In  case  of  a  tie  the  governor  or 
his  deputy  shall  cast  the  deciding  vote. 

The  damages  shall  be  paid  by  the  minister  of  public  works. 

CHANGE    IN    THE    COURSE    OF   THE    NILE. 

Article  25.  If  the  Nile  should  form,  owing  to  a  change  in  its  channel,  an  island  or 
a  deposit  of  alluvial  soil  near  a  bank  upon  which  is  erected  an  elevating  machine 
duly  authorized  by  the  government,  and  the  government  should  deem  it  expedient 
to  sell  or  rent  this  island  or  the  tract  of  land,  the  owner  of  the  machine  shall  have  a 
right  to  dig  a  ditch  through  the  alluvial  land  to  bring  water  to  his  machine  without 
indemnification  to  the  tenant  or  owner. 

LOADIXCi    AND    UNLOADING    BOATS. 

Article  2ti.  Boats  will  be  allowed  to  load  and  unload  their  cargoes  at  all  times  at 
the  landings  established  for  that  purpose  upon  the  banks  of  the  Nile  or  of  canals, 
provided  that  no  damage  be  done  to  these  banks  and  that  travel  along  the  same  be 
not  impeded. 

When  the  landing  places  are  separated  from  the  water  by  land  belonging  to  pri- 
vate individuals  and  can  not  be  reached  by  any  other  route,  the  owners  of  the  boats 
and  of  the  land  must  agree  upon  the  location  of  a  road  for  the  transportation  of  the 
cargoes  of  the  boats,  as  well  as  upon  a  reasonable  price  for  the  right  of  way.  If  the 
owner  of  the  land  objects  to  the  road,  he  will  be  obliged  to  accept  the  price  for  the 
right  of  way  fixed  by  the  commission  provided  for  in  article  27. 

Generally,  the  owners  of  boats  will  l)e  permitted  to  construct  or  repair  them  only 
on  the  footpaths  near  the  water  edge. 

BOARD    OF    appraisers. 

Article  27.  A  commission  is  hereby  instituted  to  act  where  parties  fail  to  agree 
on  the  amount  of  indemnity  due,  whether  it  be  for  lands  necessary  for  the  con- 
struction of  ditches  or  drains  or  for  any  other  case  of  indemnity  provided  for  in  this 
decree. 


92 

This  commission  shall  be  composed  of  the  governor  or  his  deputy,  as  president, 
the  chief  engineer,  and  two  prominent  citizens  of  the  province  chosen  by  each  of 
the  interested  parties. 

In  case  of  a  tie  the  president  shall  cast  the  deciding  vote. 

If  the  chief  engineer  is  absent  or  hindered  from  attending,  the  inspector  of  irriga- 
tion shall  appoint  the  principal  deputy  engineer  to  take  his  place. 

OWNERS    OF    BOATS    CAX    NOT    COLLECT    DAMAGES    FKOM    THE    (GOVERNMENT. 

Article  28.  The  owners  of  boats  or  of  cargoes  can  not  claim  any  indemnity  against 
the  government  for  delay  occasioned  by  the  closing  of  a  canal  or  by  insufficient 
water  in  the  canal  or  in  the  Si\e.  They  shall  be  advised  of  the  closing  as  soon  as 
possible. 

WRECKINCt    or    (;R()L'NDIN(i    OF    BOATS. 

Article  29.  If  a  boat  is  wrecked  or  runs  ashore  along  the  Nile  or  in  one  of  the 
public  canals  or  in  a  basin  in  such  a  way  as  to  form  an  obstacle  to  navigation  or  to 
the  free  passage  of  the  water,  the  governor  will  notify  the  owner  of  the  boat,  who 
is  held  responsible  for  notifying  the  owner  of  the  cargo  to  remove  the  boat,  aind  if 
the  latter  does  not  do  so  within  eight  days  after  receipt  of  the  notice  the  governor 
will  have  the  work  done  at  the  expense  of  the  owner,  and  the  latter  will  have  no 
claim  against  the  government  for  indemnity  for  any  damage  which  may  be  done  to 
the  boat  or  cargo  in  the  course  of  such  removal. 

If  the  owner  does  not  pay  the  expense  of  removing  the  boat  within  eight  days 
after  notification  to  do  so,  the  governor  shall  have  the  right  to  sell  the  boat  and  its 
cargo.  The  returns  from  such  sale  shall  be  remitted  to  the  owner  after  deducting  the 
said  expenses.  If  the  expense  of  removal  is  in  excess  of  the  value  of  the  boat  and 
cargo  combined  and  the  owner  is  unable  to  pay  the  difference  on  account  of-  pov- 
erty, such  excess  shall  be  borne  by  the  government. 

Should  a  boat  founder  in  a  narrow  canal  or  in  a  lock  or  in  front  of  the  opening 
of  a  lock  or  head  gate,  etc.,  so  as  to  stop  navigation  or  render  it  difficult  or  diminish 
the  discharge  of  water  in  the  canal  or  through  a  lock  or  head  gate,  the  inspector 
shall  take  immediate  measures  for  removing  the  said  boat  from  the  passage  so  ren- 
dered dangerous,  and  at  the  same  time  inform  the  governor  regarding  the  whole 
matter. 

The  expense  of  removing  the  boat  will  be  borne  by  the  government,  but  the  owner 
will  have  no  claim  against  the  government  for  any  damage  which  may  be  done  to 
the  boat,  its  accessories,  or  cargo  in  this  work. 

As  to  the  procedure  after  the  boat  has  been  removed  from  a  channel  where  it 
threatened  danger  to  navigation  or  other  interests,  the  provisions  of  the  first  part  of 
this  article  shall  apply. 

establishment  of  ferries  on  a  canal. 

Article  30.  In  order  to  establish  a  ferry  on  a  canal  it  is  necessary  that  the  pro- 
posed plan  and  site  be  approved  by  the  inspector  of  irrigation,  in  addition  to  the 
permit  from  the  minister  of  finance. 

In  regard  to  ferries  already  in  operation,  if  the  inspector  of  irrigation  believes  that 
they  are  so  located  as  to  be  injurious  to  irrigation  or  navigation  and  that  they  can 
be  moved  to  a  neighboring  site  without  interfering  with  traffic,  he  may  notify  the 
governor  to  have  the  change  made. 

If  such  change  be  not  possible,  the  inspector  of  irrigation  and  the  governor  will, 
after  conferring,  apply  to  the  ministers  of  finance  and  public  works,  who  will  decide 
whether  the  ferries  should  be  suppressed  or  not.  If  they  decide  that  such  action 
should  be  taken  the  ferries  shall  be  relieved  from  taxes  and  replaced  by  bridges 
which  shall  be  public  highways.  The  owners  of  the  ferries  will  have  no  claim  for 
indeuinity  against  the  government. 


93 

Article  31.  It  is  prohibited,  under  the  penalties  prescribed  by  the  native  penal 
code,  for  anyone  to  require  or  collect  any  payment  whatsoever  for  the  privileges 
which  authorized  boats  have  of  loading  and  unloading  their  cargoes  on  the  banks  of 
the  Nile,  of  a  canal,  or  of  a  public  drain. 

OFFENSES. 

Article  32.  Offenses  will  be  punished  by  imprisonment  from  fifteen  days  to  two 
months  and  a  tine  at  least  equal  in  amount  to  the  damages  caused,  to  be  judged  by 
the  minister  of  public  works,  but  the  fine  can  not  in  any  case  exceed  twice  this 
amount. 

First.  Those  who,  without  special  authorization — 

A.  May  have  obstructed  a  water  course  by  a  dike,  rocks,  or  any  other  obstacle. 

B.  May  have  opened  or  closed  the  gates  of  locks  or  interfered  with  any  of  the 
machinery  which  serves  to  protect  the  bridges  or  head  gates. 

C.  May  have  broken  a  dike  that  was  constructed  across  a  canal,  with  tlie  object  of 
closing  or  reducing  the  discharge. 

D.  May  have  established  on  the  l)anks  of  the  Nile,  of  a  canal,  or  of  a  public  drain 
any  structure  whatever,  hydraulic  wheel,  sakiyeh,  pump,  etc.  (all  structures  or 
machines  established  under  these  conditions  will  be  immediately  removed). 

Shadufs,  natalis,  and  Archimedean  screws  may  be  established  without  securing 
permits,  provided  that  the  banks  are  not  cut  or  in  any  way  damaged. 

E.  May  have  cut  the  banks  of  the  Xile  or  of  an  irrigation  canal  or  drain,  or  con- 
structed a  gate  for  the  passage  of  water. 

F.  May  have  removed  the  earth  forming  the  banks. 

G.  May  have  changed  in  any  way  a  lock  or  a  gate  constructed  of  masonry,  whether 
the  lock  or  gate  be  public  or  ]>rivate  property,  constructed  upon  a  Ixmk  of  the  Xile 
or  of  a  public  canal. 

H.  May  have  removed  earth,  stone,  wood,  or  any  other  material  from  the  banks 
of  the  Xile  or  of  a  canal  or  from  any  work  of  protection,  or  who  may  have  committed 
acts  which  might  injure  works  of  art. 

The  sheiks  of  the  villages  who  may  have  taken  charge  of  these  works  of  art  will 
be  held  legally  responsible  by  the  government  for  the  said  acts,  unless  they  have 
informed  the  government  that  they  will  no  longer  act  in  this  capacity,  so  that 
guardians  might  be  appointed  by  the  government. 

Second.  Those  who  may  have  interred  a  body  in  the  banks. 

Third.  Those  who  may  have  taken  water  from  a  canal,  whether  by  opening  the 
gate  of  a  canal  or  ditch  or  by  making  an  opening  in  the  bank  or  by  raising  the  level 
of  the  water  during  the  time  the  inspector  of  irrigation  or  other  duly  appointed 
authority  shall  have  given  notice  that  water  should  not  be  used. 

Article  33.  The  following  offenders  will  be  punished  by  a  fine  of  from  25  to  200 
P.  T.  (81.23  to  $9.86)  and  imprisonment  from  five  to  thirty  days: 

First.  Those  who,  without  written  authority  from  the  inspector  of  irrigation,  may 
have  diverted  water  from  a  drainage  canal  to  a  public  canal. 

Second.  Those  who,  without  special  authorization,  may  have  constructed  over  a 
canal  any  bridge,  either  permanent  or  temporary,  or  who  may  have  established  a 
pipe  or  a  siphon. 

Article  34.  The  following  offenders  will  be  punished  by  a  fine  of  from  10  to  50 
P.  T.  (80.49  to  $2.47)  and  imprisonment  from  one  to  fifteen  days: 

First.  Those  who  may  have  deposited  upon  the  banks  or  berms  of  a  canal  the 
material  ol)tained  from  excavating  orcleaning  a  ditch,  a  conduit  to  a  sakiyeh,  or  a  steam 
pump. 

Second.  Those  who  may  have  damaged  the  banks  of  canals  or  public  drains  by 
running  water  over  them  from  the  fields  or  by  discharging  into  the  channel  of  a 
public  dram  sand  or  mud  carried  by  water. 


94 

Third.  Those  who  may  have  driven  stakes  in  a  canal  to  hol(i  fishing  nets. 

Article  35.  Those  who  may  have  thrown  into  the  Nile,  a  canal,  or  a  ])iiblic  drain 
dead  animals  or  any  other  substance  which  wonld  taint  the  Avater  will  be  subject  to  a 
fineof  200P.T.  ($9.86). 

Those  in  charge  of  the  guards  must  always  remove  dead  bodies  from  the  water 
and  bury  them. 

Article  36.  The  penalties,  fines,  and  imprisonments  provided  for  in  articles  32,  33, 
and  34  may  be  applied  separately. 

Article  37.  In  addition  to  the  prosecution  for  offenses  as  above  provicied  for, 
offenders  will  always  be  required  to  restore  premises  to  their  former  condition;  if  they 
refuse,  the  necessary  work  will  be  performed  at  their  expense  by  the  government, 
and  the  sum  expended  will  be  recovered  in  the  manner  prescribed  in  the  decree  of 
March  25,  1880. 

Article  38.  Offenders  will  be  tried  before  a  commission  composed  of  the  governor, 
the  chief  engineer  or  his  deputy,  and  three  prominent  citizens  of  the  province,  to  be 
chosen  by  the  minister  of  the  interior. 

A  majority  vote  shall  decide. 

No  appeal  may  be  taken  if  the  sentence  carries  a  fine  only. 

Where  the  offender  is  condemned  to  imprisonment,  he  may  appeal  to  a  special 
committee  sitting  at  the  ministry  of  the  interior  and  composeci  of  the  under  secretary 
of  state  as  president,  a  khedival  councilor,  and  a  delegate  from  the  ministry  of  public 
works. 

The  appeal  must  be  lodged  by  a  declaration  to  the  province  or  to  the  government 
within  three  days  after  the  decision  has  been  handed  down. 

The  appeal  will  not  be  received  unless  the  party  condemned  has  at  that  time  paid 
the  fine  and  damages  imposed,  subject  to  refund  in  case  of  acquittal. 

Article  39.  Special  regulations  of  the  minister  of  the  interior  shall  fix  the  pro- 
cedure to  be  followed,  whether  before  the  commission  or  before  the  special  committee. 

Article  40.  The  sheiks  and  watchmen  of  the  towns  and  villages,  the  overseers  of 
the  chifliks  and  ezbehs,"  of  the  government  lands,  and  of  the  Daira  8anieh  will  be 
held  responsible  for  the  safe-keeping  of  the  dikes  and  canals  and  all  works  of  art 
Which  may  be  located  within  their  respective  jurisdictions  and  which  have  been 
consigned  to  their  care.  In  case  of  offense  they  will  l)e  held  personally  liable  for 
the  expense  of  repairing  the  works  should  the  offenders  l)e  not  apprehended. 

Article  41.  The  fines  and  other  expenses  shall  be  collected  under  the  provisions 
of  the  decree  of  March  25,  1880.  In  case  the  fine  is  not  jiaid,  the  condemned  shall, 
in  lieu  thereof,  be  imprisoned  one  day  for  each  30  P.  T.  ($1.48)  of  the  fine.  Such 
imprisonment  \vill  be  ordered  by  the  governor. 

Article  42.  All  previous  acts  in  conflict  with  this  decree  are  hereby  repealed. 

ORDER  OF  THE   MINISTER  OF  THE   INTERIOR  OF  JULY  16,   1898. 

Article].  All  infractions  of  the  law  of  February  22,  1894,  relative  to  levees  and 
canals,  shall  be  proven  by  testimony  drawn  up  and  signed  by  the  engineer  of  the 
district  or  by  a  referee  appointed  by  the  chief  engineer,  and  signed  in  addition  by 
the  omdeh  ^>  or  by  one  of  the  sheiks  of  the  village  m  the  province  where  the  offense 
was  committed. 


''Chifliks  are  concessions  of  large  areas  of  land  related  to  the  Abadieh  lands  and 
ruled  by  the  same  decree  of  1842.  They  were  given  to  the  vice-royal  family  exclu- 
sively. Under  Abba  Pasha,  however,  the  government  ceded  some  of  this  land  to 
several  high  functionaries  of  the  state. 

Ezbehs  are  hamlets  or  settlements  isolated  from  neighboring  villages,  the  inhabit- 
ants not  being  included  in  the  census  of  the  villages. 

ft  An  omdeh  is  the  chief  of  a  village;  he  is  superior  in  authority  to  a  sheik. 


95 

If  the  omdeh  and  the  t^heiks  are  absent,  the  saiil  tesitimony  shall  be  signed  by  the 
head  oflBcer  of  the  district,  or  by  one  of  the  referees  of  the  province  or  of  the  districts, 
or  by  an  agent  of  police,  on  condition  that  they  have  presented  direct  evidence  of 
the  offense. 

In  the  absence  of  these  ofticials  or  of  an  agent  of  police,  it  will  be  sufficient  in,  the 
prosecution  if  the  testimony  be  countersigned,  of  simply  signed,  without  a  second 
signature  being  necessary,  by  an  inspector  of  irrigation,  a  chief  engineer,  a  director 
of  public  works,  a  superintendent  of  contracts,  or  an  engineer  appointed  Tjy  the 
inspector  of  irrigation. 

If  the  chief  engineer  should  appoint  a  referee,  or  the  inspector  of  irrigation  an  engi- 
neer, to  take  testimony  in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  this  article,  the  governor 
should  be  informed  immediately  of  the  name  of  the  person  so  appointed  and  the 
object  of  his  appointment.  The  authority  and  duties  of  a  person  so  appointed  shall 
concern  only  a  single  case  or  a  group  of  cases  or  a  certain  locality,  in  which  the 
appointee  must  spend  a  fixed  period,  such  as,  for  example,  the  breaking  of  regula- 
tions concerning  rotation  in  the  use  of  water  from  a  certain  canal  or  in  a  certain 
district  during  the  period  of  rotation. 

Article  2.  The  testimony  shall  be  dated  and  nuist  contain  the  following  infor- 
mation : 

(1)  The  lull  name,  ooc-upation,  and  residence  of  the  accused. 

(2)  Proof  of  the  act  constituting  the  offense  and  of  the  time  and  of  the  place 
where  committed. 

All  testimony  shall  be  recorded,  together  with  all  the  circumstances  arising  from 
the  culpability  of  the  accused,  and  shall  be  forwarded  within  twenty-four  hours  to 
the  governor,  accompanied  by  a  statement  fixing  the  amount  of  damages. 

Article  3.  A  special  register  shall  be  kept  at  the  office  of  the  governor  by  an 
employee,  Avho  shall  act  as  recorder  for  the  commission.  In  this  register  he  shall 
enter  immediately — 

(1)  The  date  of  the  receipt  of  the  report. 

(2)  The  date  of  the  taking  of  testimony. 

(3)  The  full  name,  occupation,  and  residence  of  the  accused. 

(4)  The  character  of  the  offense. 

Article  4.  Within  twenty-four  hours  after  receipt  of  the  report  the  recorder  shall 
summon  the  accused  to  appear  before  the  commission.  This  summons,  in  duplicate, 
must  contain — 

(1)  The  full  name,  occupation,  and  residence  of  the  ac-c-used. 

(2)  The  character  of  the  offense. 

(3)  Citation  of  the  relevant  provisions  of  the  law. 

(4)  The  day  and  hour  when  the  accused  shall  appear. 

At  least  three  full  days  must  intervene  between  the  date  of  tlie  summons  and  the 
date  of  appearance. 

Article  5.  An  agent  of  the  government  shall  be  appointe<l  to  deliver  a  duplicate 
of  the  summons  to  the  accused. 

He  shall  make  mention  of  such  delivery  at  the  bottom  of  both  the  original  and 
duplicate  summons,  and  shall  affix  the  date  of  his  signature. 

The  accused  shall  also  sign  or  stamp  the  summons.  In  case  of  refusal  or  absence 
such  fact  shall  be  noted  thereon,  and  the  original  summons  shall  be  delivered  to  the 
sheik,  who  shall  acknowledge  receipt  thereof. 

Article  6,  The  recorder  shall  enter  in  the  register  provided  for  in  article  3  the 
date  of  the  summons  and  all  proceedings  to  and  including  the  final  decision. 

Article  7.  The  accused  shall  appear  before  the  commission  in  person  on  the  day 
and  hour  specified. 

He  may  not  in  any  event  claim  any  irregularity  whatever  in  the  summons,  for  the 
fact  of  his  appearance  would  nullify  any  such  claim. 


96 

Article  8.  Testimony  duly  signed  shall  be  accepted  as  fact  until  proven  to  the 
contrary.  The  recorder  shall  read  the  testimony,  together  with  any  report  which 
may  accompany  it. 

Following  this  the  accused  will  set  forth  the  character  of  his  defense,  and,  if  the 
same  court  tries  the  case,  he  will  then  give  his  testimony. 

The  character  of  the  defense  and  the  depositions  of  testimony  shall  be  briefly 
stated  by  the  recorder  in  a  report.  The  commission  shall,  before  adjournment,  give 
its  decision,  which  must  be  justified  by  the  facts. 

They  may  require  additional  testimony  if  they  believe  it  necessary.  In  such 
event  they  shall  fix  the  day  and  hour  when  the  new  evidence  shall  be  heard,  which 
must  be  within  fifteen  days. 

Article  9.  If  the  accused  does  not  appear  at  the  first  hearing,  the  commission 
shall  ascertain  if  the  provisions  of  articles  4  and  5  relating  to  the  summons  have 
been  observed.  If  any  irregularity  be  found,  they  shall  order  a  new  hearing,  which 
shall  take  place  within  three  days. 

Article  10.  If  the  summons  has  been  properly  issued,  judgment  by  default  will 
be  given,  and  no  appeal  may  be  taken. 

Article  11.  Where  an  appeal  is  granted  in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of 
article  38  of  the  law  on  levees  and  canals,  the  accused,  in  making  the  appeal,  must 
produce  a  receipt  showing  that  he  has  deposited  in  the  treasury  of  the  province  the 
amount  of  the  fine  and  damages  which  have  been  imposed. 

The  appeal  will  not  be  received  if  it  is  not  accompanied  by  the  said  receipt. 

The  appeal  shall  be  transmitted  within  three  days  to  the  minister  of  the  interior, 
with  the  decision  and  the  other  j^apers  in  the  case. 

Article  12.  During  the  period  of  rotation  in  the  summer — that  is,  the  period  dur- 
ing which  rotations  apply  to  machines  and  pumps — the  commission  shall  assemble  at 
least  once  a  week.  But  if,  within  three  days  before  the  time  of  meeting,  there  has 
been  no  summons,  and  there  is  no  case  of  emergency,  the  governor  may  give  notice 
to  the  members  of  the  commission  that  no  meeting  will  be  held  during  the  said 
week. 

Article  13.  The  governor  shall  be  charged  with  the  execution  of  the  decisions, 
both  of  the  commission  and  of  the  special  committee  of  appeal. 


Appendix  IL 

INSTALLATION  OF  MACHINES  FOR  ELEVATING  WATER. 

[Decree  of  Marcli  S,  1881.] 

Article  1.  Any  person,  before  establishing  a  machine  for  elevating  water  either 
for  irrigation  or  drainage,  whether  the  machine  be  stationary  or  movable,  or 
propelled  by  steam  or  by  a  current  of  water,  or  by  the  wind,  must  receive  permission 
from  the  public  works  ministry.  This  j^ermit  carries  with  it  no  right  or  title  to  the 
public  or  private  lands  traversed  by  the  pipes,  conduits,  aqueducts,  head  gates,  or 
occupied  by  the  pumping  plant,  in  any  way  whatsoever.  The  government  remains 
neutral  in  all  respects  in  all  disputes  between  the  people  and  the  person  receiving 
the  permit  and  leaves  to  him  all  responsibility  resulting  from  damages  which  may 
occur  in  the  installation  of  the  plant  or  in  any  other  way. 

Article  2.  The  erection  of  stationary  elevating  machines  will  be  authorized  only 
upon  the  banks  of  the  Nile.  At  the  same  time  the  minister  of  public  works  may 
make  exception  and  authorize  the  establishment  of  such  machines  upon  certain 
canals.  The  minister  is  to  be  sole  judge  of  the  expediency  of  issuing  a  jermit,  and 
to  him  will  be  left  all  freedom  regarding  all  agreements  and  conditions  to  which  it 
will  be  subjected,  as  the  case  may  demand. 


97 

Article  3.  All  machines  for  elevating  water,  whether  stationary  or  movable,  must 
be  so  installed  as?  not  to  interfere  with  travel  along  the  banks  or  the  navigation  of 
the  canals,  to  respect  all  existing  rights,  and  not  add  to  the  expense  of  maintenance 
of  the  canals  or  their  banks,  or  to  the  defense  of  the  country  against  inundation. 

Article  4.  In  case  the  applicant  fails  to  comply  with  the  conditions  and  obliga- 
tions imposed  by  the  permit,  it  will  be  canceled  without  any  claim  on  the  govern- 
ment on  account  of  such  procedure  as  it  may  deem  necessary  to  reimburse  itself  for 
such  damage  as  may  be  done. 

Article  5.  A  site  for  the  installation  of  a  machine  at  a  certain  place  may  not  be 
changed  except  by  the  issuance  of  a  new  permit,  which  will  be  granted  without 
requiring  the  payment  of  additional  fees. 

Article  6.  The  Government  retains  the  right,  whenever  a  public  utility  may 
require,  such  as  the  execution  of  public  works  dangerous  to  the  dikes,  irrigation 
works,  etc.,  to  cause  any  authorized  pumping  plant  to  be  removed. 

Article  7.  The  permit  given  for  the  installation  of  an  elevating  machine,  whether 
stationary  or  movable,  carries  with  it  only  the  right  for  the  applicants  to  install  the 
plant  in  order  to  take  water  from  a  canal  or  the  Nile.  It  carries  with  it  no  assurance 
from  the  government  of  a  supply  of  water  for  the  machine,  nor  does  it  insure  a 
passage  for  the  water  elevated  by  the  machine.  The  applicants  must  come  to  an 
understanding  with  their  associates,  or  the  people  whose  land  they  must  cross,  with- 
out interfering  with  the  government  in  any  way.  In  order  to  conduct  water  over 
waste  or  other  land  of  the  government,  the  applicant  must  secure  a  special  -permit. 
It  is  prohibited  to  make  ditches  to  bring  the  water  along  the  banks  of  the  canals  or 
of  the  Nile,  as  well  as  upon  the  roads  or  slopes  of  the  banks. 

Article  8.  The  ditches  or  conduits  for  carrying  the  water  from  the  machines  to 
the  land  will  be  constructed  in  such  a  manner  and  be  of  such  a  kind  as  not  to  inter- 
fere with  travel,  the  flow  of  water,  or  with  irrigation,  according  to  the  rights  reserved 
by  the  people  to  whom  the  applicant  alone  remains  responsil)le.  The  government 
will  allow  such  construction  as  it  deems  safe  and  necessary  for  permitting  the  passage 
of  conduits  under  dikes  and  roads  and  under  or  above  canals. 

Article  9.  For  the  general  good,  in  case  of  exceptional  low  water,  or  when  the 
flow  of  the  canal  becomes  greatly  inferior  to  the  needs  of  the  agriculture  which  it 
serves,  the  public  works  ministry,  in  accordance  with  a  measure  generally  applicable 
to  canals  or  a  single  reach  of  a  canal,  may  order  the  immediate  closing  of  the  elevating 
machine,  or  reduce  the  capacity  of  the  same  in  accordance  with  its  location,  the 
relative  importance  of  the  machine,  the  area  of  the  land  which  it  irrigates,  and  in  no 
case  will  the  government  incur  any  responsibility  tor  damage  caused  to  agriculture. 

Article  10.  Under  the  provisions  of  article  7,  the  ministry  of  public  works  is,  under 
certain  conditions,  authorized  to  permit  the  use  of  a  public  Nili  canal  for  carrying 
water  from  the  elevating  machine  to  the  land  to  be  irrigated,  under  the  following 
reservations: 

(1)  Such  permission  will  be  given  only  during  the  season  of  low  water  and  ends 
when  the  water  of  the  Nile  will  flow  freely  in  the  canal. 

(2)  Permission  will  be  given  only  when  the  proprietors  of  the  land  who  use  the 
Nili  canal  have  given  their  general  consent. 

(3)  If  it  is  found  necessary  to  construct  dams  to  maintain  the  level  of  the  water 
along  a  Nili  canal,  these  must  be  of  earth  and  they  must  be  built  by  the  owner  of  the 
machine,  in  case  of  necessity,  by  the  government,  but  at  the  expense,  risk,  and  i)eril 
of  the  proprietor,  before  the  water  of  the  Nile  can  flow  freely  into  the  canal. 

(4)  Finally,  the  owner  of  the  machine  is  alone  responsible  to  the  people  for  all 
damage  occasioned  by  the  breaking  of  dams,  percolation,  and  delay  in  building  the 
dams  at  the  time  the  supply  of  water  is  available. 

Article  11.  Any  person  who,  contrary  to  the  foregoing  i)rovisions  of  this  decree, 
may  have  installed  a  stationary  or  a  movable  machine  without  receiving  a  permit, 
must,  before  August  31,  1881,  apply  for  a  permit  under  the  conditions  prescribed  by 

27752— No.  180—03 7 


98 

this  decree  and  its  regulations.  Any  person  furnished  with  a  permit  prior  to  this 
decree  must,  before  the  same  date,  secure  a  new  permit  under  the  same  conditions, 
but  he  will  not  be  compelled  to  pay  additional  fees. 

Article  12,  After  August  31,  1881,  the  operation  of  all  machines  established  con- 
trary to  the  provisions  of  article  1 1  preceding,  will  be  stopped. 

Article  13.  The  owners  of  elevating  machines  are  responsible  for  accidents  and 
damage  which  may  be  occasioned  by  the  machines.  The  government  reserves  the 
right  to  exercise,  in  the  interest  of  the  public,  a  supervision  of  the  working  of  the 
machines  without  removing  from  the  proprietors  the  responsibilities  which  may  be 
incumbent  upon  them. 

Article  14.  Regulations  for  carrying  this  decree  into  effect  and  for  the  protection 

of  such  interests  as  are  affected  thereby  will  be  prepared  by  the  ministry  of  public 

w'orks. 

[Decree  of  the  minister  of  public  works,  April  6,  1881.] 

Article  1.  All  applications  for  permits  to  establish  a  movable  engine  for  elevating 
water  should  be  made  upon  stamped  paper  and  be  addressed  to  the  governor  or  to 
the  province  in  the  circle  where  the  machine  is  to  be  established.  The  application 
should  contain  the  following  information: 

(1)  The  kind  of  engine  and  pump,  together  with  its  capacity  and  its  principal 
dimensions. 

(2)  The  location  of  the  place  where  it  is  proposed  to  establish  it,  together  with  its 
plan. 

(3)  AVhether  the  machine  is  to  be  established  for  irrigation  or  drainage  purposes. 

(4)  The  full  names,  professions,  nationalities,  and  residences  of  the  owners  of  the 
land  to  be  irrigated  or  drained. 

(5)  The  period  for  which  the  permit  is  required. 

Article  2.  The  application  is  recorded  by  the  province  or  in  the  governor's  office 
upon  a  special  register.  It  receives  a  number  in  sequence  after  the  payment  of  fixed 
fees  of  100  j^iasters  (14.93)  for  each  machine  for  the  expense  of  the  examination.  It 
is  then  transmitted  for  examination  to  the  chief  engineer  of  the  circle  in  which  the 
governor's  office  is  found. 

Article  3.  If  the  chief  engineer  of  the  circle  approves  the  project  he  draws  up  in 
due  form  and  signs  the  permit,  which  should  contain: 

(1)  The  agreement  under  which  the  applicant  must  conform  to  the  present  decree 
and  all  future  laws  and  regulations. 

(2)  A  description  of  the  site  upon  which  the  machine  is  to  be  erected,  with  draw- 
ings to  show  the  same. 

(3)  The  special  features  of  the  machine,  especially  those  relative  to  the  passageway 
under  the  bank  of  the  canal,  the  main  sluiceway,  the  manner  of  closing  the  same,  etc. 

The  permit  being  issued  only  in  view  of  the  necessities  of  the  public  service,  it 
allows  all  facts  to  become  public,  so  that  anyone  can  object  to  the  occupation  of  the 
land  by  the  machine  or  legally  oppose  its  establishment. 

Article  4.  The  permit  is  sent  by  the  engineer  of  the  circle  to  the  province  or  to 
the  governor,  is  signed  by  the  latter,  and  forwarded  to  the  applicant  in  order  to 
obtain  his  signature  on  the  margin  of  the  duplicate  of  the  authorization  recorded 
upon  the  register  upon  the  payment  of  50  piasters  ($2.47)  per  horsepower.  This 
tax,  however,  shall  never  be  less  than  500  piasters  ($24.65). 

Article  5.  All  applications  for  erecting  stationary  elevating  machines  should  be 
addressed  upon  stamped  paper  to  the  ministry  of  public  works,  which  immediately 
approves  applications  if  it  thinks  best.  The  application  should  always  be  accom- 
panied by  papers  describing  the  installation  of  the  machine  and  the  mam  head  works, 
and  if  plans  of  the  machine  itself  are  not  given  a  full  description  should  be  turmshed 
instead. 

Article  6.  Permits  for  the  establishment  oi  stationary  machines  for  elevating 
water  are  subject  to  the  same  fees  for  examination  and  authorization  as  for  movable 


99 

machines.  These  fees  are  paid  directly  into  the  treasury  o(  the  public  works 
ministry. 

Article  7.  In  no  case  can  the  applicant  proceed  with  the  installation  without  first 
receiving  a  permit. 

Article  8.  No  machine  can  be  established  upon  a  main  sluiceway,  bridge,  dam,  or 
other  work  of  a  public  nature,  or  near  these  works,  the  distance  away  being 
determined  in  each  case  by  the  public  works  ministry. 

Article  9.  The  permit  provided  for  in  article  5  of  the  decree  of  March  8,  1881, 
shall  be  given  by  the  chief  engineer  of  the  district,  who  Avill  notify  the  province  or 
the  government  of  the  removal  which  he  shall  have  authorized. 

Article  10.  The  removal  of  machines  provided  for  by  article  6  of  the  decree 
above  referred  to  shall  be  ordered  by  the  public  works  ministry  only.  It  shall  be 
made  at  the  expense  of  the  applicant. 

Article  11.  All  previous  acts  and  parts  of  acts  conflicting  with  this  decree  are 
hereby  repealed. 


Appendix  III. 
DRAINAGE  OF  SWAMPS  AND  MARSHES. 

[Act  approved  by  the  Council  of  Ministers,  February  21,  1894.] 

Article  1.  Insalubrious  swamps  and  marshes  belonging  to  the  government  may 
be  ceded  to  individuals,  who  must,  after  coming  into  possession  of  such  lands,  make 
embankments  and  perform  such  other  work  as  is  hereinafter  provided. 

Article  2.  Applications  for  cession  must  be  addressed  to  the  jirovince  or  to  the 
seat  of  government  on  stamped  paper  of  30  milliemes  (about  15  cents),  and  contain 
the  following  information: 

(1)  The  location  of  the  swamp  or  marsh. 

(2)  The  town  or  village  where  it  is  situated. 

(3)  Its  approximate  area  and  its  boundaries. 

(4)  The  place  where  the  applicant  proposes  to  secure  earth  for  building  the  embank- 
ment.    . 

(5)  The  time  when  the  work  will  begin. 

(6)  The  time  within  which  the  work  will  ])e  finished.  This  time  can  not  in  any 
case  exceed  2  years. 

Article  3.  The  governor  will  communicate  the  application  to  the  inspector  of  irri- 
gation for  his  advice  and  in  order  to  fix  the  location  of  the  embankment  to  keep  back 
the  water. 

Where  such  swamp  or  marsh  is  found  within  the  limits  of  a  city  subject  to  gov- 
ernment regulations,  the  advice  of  the  local  government  officials  must  be  obtained. 

Article  4.  The  governor  will  thereupon  transmit  the  application  and  the  papers 
accompanying  it,  with  his  recommendations,  to  the  minister  of  finance,  who  will 
give  his  decision. 

Article  5.  If  the  application  be  approved,  the  governor  will  proceed  to  have  the 
boundary  of  the  swamp  or  marsh  fixed  by  the  engineer  of  the  province  or  of  the 
government,  and  will  have  the  applicant  sign  an  agreement  containing  the  following 
stipulations: 

(1)  To  begin  the  embankment  work  within  the  time  specified. 

(2)  To  execute  at  least  a  quarter  of  the  work  within  the  first  quarter  of  the  time 
prescribed  for  the  completion  of  the  whole. 

(3)  To  complete  the  embankment  in  the  prescribed  manner  within  the  time 
agreed  upon. 

(4)  To  take  earth  from  no  ])lace  other  than  that  designated. 

If  the  agreement  is  not  adhered  to,  the  applicant  will   be  deprived  of  all  right  or 


100 

title  in  or  to  the  swamp  or  marsh,  without  any  compensation  for  expense  incurred 
in  drainage  or  in  building  such  part  of  the  eml)ankment  as  may  have  been  completed. 

Article  6.  The  governor  will  then  furnish  an  authorization  in  writing,  giving  the 
location,  boundaries,  and  area  of  the  swamp  or  marsh  and  all  the  conditions  of  the 
agreement. 

Article  7.  If  the  applicant  has  not  commenced  work  within  the  time  specified,  or 
if,  having  commenced  in  due  time,  he  has  not  completed  a  fourth  of  the  work  within 
the  period  specified  in  paragraph  2  of  article  5,  the  authorization  will  V)ecome  mill 
and  void,  and  the  government  may  dispose  of  the  swamp  or  marsh  as  it  deems  })est. 

Article  8.  Whenever  the  work  is  commenced  and  completed  without  delay  in 
accordance  with  the  above  provisions,  at  the  expiration  of  the  period  fixed  for  its 
accomplishment  the  governor  shall  visit  the  swamp  or  marsh  with  the  engineer  of 
the  province  or  of  the  seat  of  government,  who  will  determine  by  testimony  whether 
or  not  the  embankment  has  been  fully  completed  in  the  manner  prescribed. 

The  applicant  shall  be  informed  of  the  day  and  hour  of  this  visit  at  least  three 
days  prior  thereto,  in  order  that  he  may  be  present  if  he  so  desires. 

Article  9.  If  it  be  shown  by  the  testimony  of  the  engineer  that  the  embankment 
has  not  been  completed  within  the  period  fixed,  the  governor  shall  take  possession 
of  the  land  of  the  swamp  or  marsh,  which  will  in  all  cases  be  considered  the  prop- 
erty of  the  state,  and  the  applicant  may  not  make  any  claim  for  damages  under  the 
terms  of  his  agreement. 

Article  10.  In  such  cases  as  are  provided  for  in  the  preceding  article  and  in  arti- 
cle 7  the  applicant  may  appeal  from  the  decision  of  the  governor  to  the  minister  of 
finance,  whose  decision  shall  be  final. 

The  appeal  must  be  presented  within  fifteen  days  after  the  decision  has  been 
signed  in  due  form. 

Article  11.  If,  on  the  contrary,  the  testimony  of  the  engineer  establishes  the  fact 
that  the  embankment  has  been  properly  constructed,  the  governor  shall  so  inform 
the  minister  of  finance,  who  will  order  a  title  deed  to  the  property  to  be  issued  in 
the  name  of  the  applicant,  and  the  land  of  the  swamp  or  marsh  thus  acquired  will  be 
exempt  from  taxation  for  ten  years,  beginning  with  the  expiration  of  the  time  for 
completing  the  embankment. 

Article  12.  The  provisions  of  this  act  are  applicable  only  to  swamps  and  marshes 
located  within  1,000  meters  (3,281  feet)  of  a  city,  town,  or  village. 

[Decree  of  Aprir2G.  1900.] 

Article  1.  Excavating  within  or  to  the  north  of  cities,  towns,  and  villages,  whether 
for  the  manufacture  of  brick  or  for  any  other  purpose  whatsoever  which  may  have  a 
tendency  to  form  a  body  of  water,  is  prohibited  within  3,000  meters  (9,843  feet)  of 
any  dwelling. 

Such  excavations  are  also  prohibited  to  the  south,  east,  and  west  upon  lands  situ- 
ated within  1,000  meters  (3,281  feet)  of  any  dwelling. 

These  prohibitions  apply  equally  to  excavations  or  embankments  of  earth  having 
for  their  purpose  the  extension  in  area  or  deepening  of  bodies  of  water  already 
existing. 

Article  2.  All  infractions  of  the  preceding  article  will  be  subject  to  a  fine  of  from 
50  to  100  P.  T.  ($2.47  to  84.93).  Not  only  are  those  who  actually  perform  such  work 
held  liable,  but  also  the  owners,  administrators,  superintendents,  or  any  other  per- 
sons who  may  have  ordered  or  instigated  the  work  of  excavation  or  embankment. 

Article  3.  The  offenders  will  be,  in  addition,  compelled  to  restore  the  ground  to 
the  level  it  had  before  the  excavations  were  made,  and  if  after  a  month  from  the 
date  of  the  sentence  such  work  has  not  been  completed,  the  governor  may  cause  the 
same  to  be  done  at  the  expense  of  the  offenders. 

Article  4.  Such  expense  will  be  recovered  in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of 
the  decree  of  INIarch  25,  1880. 

o 


LIST  OF   PUBLICATIONS  OF   THE  OFFICE  OF  EXPERIMENT  STATIONS  ON 

IRRIGATION-Continued. 

I'.ul.  1 15).  Report  of  Irrigation  Investigations  for  1901  under  the  direetion  of  Ehvorwl 

.         Mead,  chief.     Pp. -Un.     Price,  50  oentt?. 
r>id.  124.  Report  of  Irrigation  Invj?j^tigations  in  L'tah,  under  the  direction  of  Ehvood 

Mead,  chief,  assisted  by  R.  P.  Teele,  A.  P.  Stover,  A.  F.  Doremus,  J.  D. 

Stannard,  Frank  Adams,  and  G.  L.  Swendsen.     Pp.  330.     Price,  $1.10. 

farmers'    BILLETINS. 

Bui.    4«).   Irrigation  in  Humid  Climates.     By  F.  H.  King.     Pp.  '27. 
Bui.  IIH.  Irrigation  in  Fruit  Growing.     By  E.  J.  Wickson.     Pp.  48. 
Bui.  138.  Irrigation  in  Field  and  Garden.     By  E.  J.  Wickson.     Pp.  40. 
Bui.  158.  How  to  Build  Small  Irrigation  Ditches.     By  C.  T.  Johnston  and  J.   D. 
Stannard.     Pp.  28. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  FLORIDA 


3  1262  08927  8609 


